Heracles and Athenian Propaganda examines how Greece's most important hero was appropriated and portrayed by Athens in religion, politics, architecture and literature, with a detailed study of Euripides' Heracles in relation to this interplay between the hero and the city's ideology. Though Athens needed a hero of Hellenic stature, Heracles was a deeply problematic figure: a violent hero of ancient epic, with an aristocratic nature and a murderous temper, who did not naturally fit into the new ideals of democratic society at Athens. Examining how Euripides' play fits within the space of the polis and its political ideology, Sofia Frade asks specific questions of tragedy and politics: how does Euripides' tragic drama of grief, insanity and murder reconcile this hero to a palatable, patriotic ideal? How does the tragic hero relate to his own representations and his cult within the polis? In a city so marked by iconographic propaganda, how did the imagery influence the audience? By looking at the play's larger contexts – literary, civic, political, religious and ideological – new readings are offered to the most problematic elements of the play, including the question of its unity, the nature of the hero's madness and the role of the gods.
Heracles and Athenian Propaganda examines how Greece's most important hero was appropriated and portrayed by Athens in religion, politics, architecture and literature, with a detailed study of Euripides' Heracles in relation to this interplay between the hero and the city's ideology. Though Athens needed a hero of Hellenic stature, Heracles was a deeply problematic figure: a violent hero of ancient epic, with an aristocratic nature and a murderous temper, who did not naturally fit into the new ideals of democratic society at Athens. Examining how Euripides' play fits within the space of the polis and its political ideology, Sofia Frade asks specific questions of tragedy and politics: how does Euripides' tragic drama of grief, insanity and murder reconcile this hero to a palatable, patriotic ideal? How does the tragic hero relate to his own representations and his cult within the polis? In a city so marked by iconographic propaganda, how did the imagery influence the audience? By looking at the play's larger contexts – literary, civic, political, religious and ideological – new readings are offered to the most problematic elements of the play, including the question of its unity, the nature of the hero's madness and the role of the gods.
In the early modern period, trade became a truly global phenomenon. The logistics, financial and organizational complexity associated with it increased in order to connect distant geographies and merchants from different backgrounds. How did these merchants prevent their partners from dishonesty in a time where formal institutions and legislation did not traverse these different worlds? This book studies the mechanisms and criteria of cooperation in early modern trading networks. It uses an interdisciplinary approach, through the case study of a Castilian long-distance merchant of the sixteenth century, Simon Ruiz, who traded within the limits of the Portuguese and Spanish overseas empires. Early Modern Trading Networks in Europe discusses the importance of reciprocity mechanisms, trust and reputation in the context of early modern business relations, using network analysis methodology, combining quantitative data with qualitative information. It considers how cooperation and prevention could simultaneously create a business relationship, and describes the mechanisms of control, policing and punishment used to avoid opportunism and deception among a group of business partners. Using bills of exchange and correspondence from Simon Ruiz‘s private archive, it charts the evolution of this business network through time, debating which criteria should be included or excluded from business networks, as well as the emergence of standards. This book intends to put forward a new approach to early modern trade which focusses on individuals interacting in self-organized structures, rather than on States or Empires. It shows how indirect reciprocity was much more frequent than direct reciprocity among early modern merchants and how informal norms, like ostracism and signalling, helped to prevent defection and deception in an effective way. This book will be of interest to all early modern historians, especially those with an interest
This is a guide to Portuguese usage for students who have already acquired the basics of the language and wish to extend their knowledge. It covers both the Brazilian and the European varieties of the language, and differentiates clearly between them. It gives detailed explanations of grammatical structures and semantic fields and, unlike conventional grammars, it gives special attention to those areas of vocabulary and grammar which cause most difficulty to English-speakers. It also contains a special chapter for students who are familiar with Spanish, highlighting key similarities and differences between the two languages. Careful consideration is given throughout to questions of style, register, and politeness which are essential to achieving an appropriate level of formality or informality in writing and speech. Clear, readable and easy to consult via its two indexes, this is an essential reference for learners seeking access to the finer nuances of the Portuguese language.
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