Lasers and chemical change is the study of radiation and molecules in dis equilibrium. The distinguishing feature of such systems is the extreme de parture from thermal equilibrium: the radiation is usually confined to a narrow frequency range, is well coll imated, and is far brighter than black body radiation; the chemical composition and also the distribution of mole cules over their different energy states are often markedly displaced from that expected at equilibrium. Such systems can be used as a source of laser radiation and, reversedly, lasers can rapidly and selectively displace mole cular systems from equilibrium. The subsequent evolution of the initially prepared state can then be monitored - again using lasers. One purpose of this book is to introduce the concepts required to d- cuss systems of radiation and molecules in disequilibrium. These include the physics of (laser) radiation and of radiation-matter interaction and molecular structure and spectroscopy. Excellent textbooks of these topics are available and our survey (in Chap. 3) is only intended to accent the es sential points, with special reference to atomic and molecular radiation physics. Considerably more attention is given to the topic of disequilibrium in chemical systems (Chap. 2). In particular we consider both inter- and intra molecular dynamics with special reference to energy requirements and energy disposal in chemical reactions and to what goes on in between - intramole cular energy migration.
The life and politics of an American Jewish activist who preached radical and violent means to Jewish survival Meir Kahane came of age amid the radical politics of the counterculture, becoming a militant voice of protest against Jewish liberalism. Kahane founded the Jewish Defense League in 1968, declaring that Jews must protect themselves by any means necessary. He immigrated to Israel in 1971, where he founded KACH, an ultranationalist and racist political party. He would die by assassination in 1990. Shaul Magid provides an in-depth look at this controversial figure, showing how the postwar American experience shaped his life and political thought. Magid sheds new light on Kahane’s radical political views, his critique of liberalism, and his use of the “grammar of race” as a tool to promote Jewish pride. He discusses Kahane’s theory of violence as a mechanism to assure Jewish safety, and traces how his Zionism evolved from a fervent support of Israel to a belief that the Zionist project had failed. Magid examines how tradition and classical Jewish texts profoundly influenced Kahane’s thought later in life, and argues that Kahane’s enduring legacy lies not in his Israeli career but in the challenge he posed to the liberalism and assimilatory project of the postwar American Jewish establishment. This incisive book shows how Kahane was a quintessentially American figure, one who adopted the radicalism of the militant Left as a tenet of Jewish survival.
This book demonstrates that we need not choose between seeing so-called Presocratic thinkers as rational philosophers or as religious sages. In particular, it rethinks fundamentally the emergence of systematic epistemology and reflection on speculative inquiry in Hesiod, Xenophanes and Parmenides. Shaul Tor argues that different forms of reasoning, and different models of divine disclosure, play equally integral, harmonious and mutually illuminating roles in early Greek epistemology. Throughout, the book relates these thinkers to their religious, literary and historical surroundings. It is thus also, and inseparably, a study of poetic inspiration, divination, mystery initiation, metempsychosis and other early Greek attitudes to the relations and interactions between mortal and divine. The engagements of early philosophers with such religious attitudes present us with complex combinations of criticisms and creative appropriations. Indeed, the early milestones of philosophical epistemology studied here themselves reflect an essentially theological enterprise and, as such, one aspect of Greek religion.
Modern ideas of freedom and human rights have been repeatedly contested and are hotly debated at the beginning of the third millennium in response to new theories, needs, and challenges in contemporary life. This volume offers culturally diverse contributions to the debate on freedom from the literatures and arts of the postcolonial world, exploring experiences that evoke, desire, imagine, and perform freedom across five continents and two centuries of history. Experiences of Freedom opens with an introductory philosophical essay by Achille Mbembe and is divided into four sections that consider: • resisting history and colonialism • the right to move and to belong • the right to (believe in) free futures • imaginative freedom and critical engagement. Each section contains a piece of creative writing directly connected to these topics from authors Chris Abani, Anita Desai, Caryl Phillips, and Alexis Wright, followed by a selection of critical essays. Contributors: Chris Abani, Rochelle Almeida, Gil Anidjar, Jogamaya Bayer, Elena Bernardini, Anne Collett, Carmen Concilio, Paola Della Valle, Roberto Derobertis, Anita Desai, Lorna Down, Francesca Giommi, Gareth Griffiths, Dave Gunning, John C. Hawley, Peter H. Marsden, Russell McDougall, Achille Mbembe, Cinzia Mozzato, Kevin Newmark, Berndt Ostendorf, Mai Palmberg, Owen Percy, Kirsten Holst Petersen, Caryl Phillips, Annel Pieterse, Christiane Schlote, Nermeen Shaikh, Patrick Williams, Alexis Wright, and Robert J. C. Young.
A life's journey that started with a struggle and deception continues into adulthood. Jacob's life was full of drama--feuding with his brother Esau, wrestling with an angel, and jealousy between his wives Rachel and Leah. One beloved wife who is barren at first and one unloved wife who is blessed with sons. Fathering children who formed the twelve tribes of Israel. The Jacob story invites the reader into tensions between settling and wandering, hope and despair, trickery and fidelity, faith and doubt. These stories reflect Jacob's life and his struggles with people and God. Regarding the Jacob stories, the question of their composition and historical value has captured the attention of Biblical scholars for centuries. Some view these accounts as myths or literary epics. So what is behind these stories? To answer these questions the author examines the patriarch's beliefs, customs, and daily life. In this book the author provides provocative and useful answers regarding who the father of the nation of Israel was.
Shaul G. Massry Division of Nephrology, The University of Southern California, School of Medicine Los Angeles, California In the last two decades evidence has accumulated indicating that parathyroid hormone may exert a multitude of effects on many cells and a variety of organs beyond its classical targets: the kidney and the bone. These efforts have been spearheaded by nephrologists. The interest of this group of clinicians-scientists stems from the fact that patients with renal failure have secondary hyperparathyroidism and markedly elevated blood levels of PTH (1,2). If this hormone does act on various organs, it becomes plausible that excess blood levels of PTH may be harmful in these patients. Indeed, in an Editorial published in 1977, Massry suggested that the elevated blood levels of PTH in patients with renal failure may exert deleterious effects on many systems and as such may participate in the genesis of many of the manifestations of the uremic syndrome (3). Thus, the essence of the Massry hypothesis is the notion that PTH may act as a major uremic toxin. The search for uremic toxins did not yield successful results. In the last three decades many compounds have been implicated as uremic toxins. However, a cause and effect relationship between these compounds and the manifestations of the uremic syndrome has not been established in most cases.
Sonar to Quartz Clock examines how the unapplied phenomenon of piezoelectricity became applied for technologies such as sonar, crystal frequency control, the quartz clock, and how its research has consequently changed during WWI and the interwar period. It aims at reconstructing, for the first time, the fascinating history of the inventions and the development of these highly important technologies, which are still in extensive use, and which were crucial for the electronic revolution, arguably the most important technological developments of the twentieth century. On this basis, this book suggests a better and more nuanced understanding of the relationships between modern science and technology and the process of development and innovation of science-based technologies. It examines in particular the mutual transfer and transformation of knowledge between them including the way physics becomes practically applicable, the way applications and societal interests shape technology and science, and the differences and similarities between scientific and technological research. The book presents an in-depth analysis of the scientific and technological research and development in the field, and of the evolution of their experimental, theoretical, and technical aspects within their social military and commercial contexts. It offers an integrative history of science and technology, needed to better comprehend their interactions and evolution but rare in current historiography. This book will appeal to historians of science and technology, sociologists of science and generally scientists and engineers studying or working with piezoelectricity, ultrasound devices, and crystal frequency control.
Viewing the Jewish history of eastern Europe through the prism of the lives of ordinary people produces findings that are sometimes surprising but always stimulating.
This volume is the first of a biannual series entitled Contemporary Nephrology. The series intends to provide the reader with a broad, authoritative review of the important developments that have occurred during the previous two years in the major areas of both basic and clinical nephrology. We have been fortunate to enlist a distinguished group of scientists, teachers, and clinicians to serve as members of the Editorial Board of this series. We are grateful to them for the outstand ing contributions they have made to this first volume of Contemporary Nephrology. This volume has fifteen chapters. The first four chapters deal with more basic aspects of nephrology: Membrane Transport (Schafer); Renal Physiology (Knox and Spielman); Renal Metabolism (School werth); and Renal Prostaglandins (Dunn). Chapters 5-10 are more pathophysiologically oriented, and each contains an "appropriate mix" of basic and clinical information. This group of chapters includes Acid-Base Physiology and Pathophysiology (Arruda and Kurtzman); Mineral Metabolism in Health and Disease (Agus, Goldfarb, and Was serstein); Hypertension and the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Axis (Williams and Hollenberg); Immunologically Mediated Renal Disease (Glassock); Acute Renal Failure and Toxic Nephropathy (Anderson and Gross); and the Kidney in Systemic Disease (Martinez-Maldonado). The last five chapters, which are more clinically oriented, include Uremia (Friedman and Lundin); Nutrition in Renal Disease (Mitch); Dialysis (Maher); Renal Transplantation (Strom); and, finally, Drugs and the Kidney (Bennett).
Every year, about 25,000 new products are introduced in the United States. Most of these products fail—at considerable expense to the companies that produce them. Such failures are typically thought to result from consumers’ resistance to innovation, but marketers have tended to focus instead on consumers who show little resistance, despite these “early adopters” comprising only 20 percent of the consumer population. Shaul Oreg and Jacob Goldenberg bring the insights of marketing and organizational behavior to bear on the attitudes and behaviors of the remaining 80 percent who resist innovation. The authors identify two competing definitions of resistance: In marketing, resistance denotes a reluctance to adopt a worthy new product, or one that offers a clear benefit and carries little or no risk. In the field of organizational behavior, employees are defined as resistant if they are unwilling to implement changes regardless of the reasons behind their reluctance. Seeking to clarify the act of rejecting a new product from the reasons—rational or not—consumers may have for doing so, Oreg and Goldenberg propose a more coherent definition of resistance less encumbered by subjective, context-specific factors and personality traits. The application of this tighter definition makes it possible to disentangle resistance from its sources and ultimately offers a richer understanding of consumers’ underlying motivations. This important research is made clear through the use of many real-life examples.
The terrorist destruction of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 was the climax of a course plotted by Osama Bin Laden to bring about his apocalyptic vision of a decisive clash between the Western and Moslem worlds. This timely volume details the organizational workings and belief system of Bin Laden's brutal campaign. The authors explore the background and objectives of the attacks, the elaborate planning that went into them, and the process of their practical execution. In addition to its factual account, The Globalization of Terror makes a significant contribution to scholarly and theoretical research dealing with international terror. The book offers a unique analysis of the Afghan "alumni," who had previously fought the Soviets in the 1980s, within the overall tapestry related to modern international terror. The authors detail how their activities evolved from a movement of national self-defense to the militant worldview identified with radical Islam. The book reveals, as well, the organizational structure so carefully erected by Bin Laden and his associates, in order to realize the vision of a worldwide Islamic Caliphate in practical terms. The book is intended to work as a set of guidelines for newcomers to the world of international terrorism including anti-terror task forces, heads of security companies as well as professionals in the field. The importance of The Globalization of Terror lies in its clear presentation and precise analysis regarding the dimensions of the danger international terror poses to the free world, and in its recommendations for the necessary strategy to prevent the recurrence of acts of large-scale terror.
Hasidism on the Margin explores one of the most provocative and radical traditions of Hasidic thought, the school of Izbica and Radzin that Rabbi Gershon Henokh originated in nineteenth-century Poland. Shaul Magid traces the intellectual history of this strand of Judaism from medieval Jewish philosophy through centuries of Kabbalistic texts to the nineteenth century and into the present. He contextualizes the Hasidism of Izbica-Radzin in the larger philosophy and history of religions and provides a model for inquiry into other forms of Hasidism.
This book offers a new approach to the use of linguistic data to reconstruct prehistory. The author shows how a well-studied language family—in this case Uto-Aztecan—can be used as an instrument for reconstructing prehistory. The main focus of Shaul’s work is the mapping of Uto-Aztecan. By presenting various models of Uto-Aztecan prehistory, by assessing multiple models simultaneously, and by guiding readers through areas where the evidence is not so clear, Shaul helps nonspecialists develop the tools needed for evaluating various historical linguistics models themselves. He evaluates both archaeological and genetic evidence as well, placing it carefully alongside the linguistic evidence he knows best. Shaul’s thorough treatment provides many new avenues for future research on the historical anthropology of western North America.
Saul was the first king of Israel (1029-1005 BCE). His life was full of drama and tribulations, and ended tragically. The book of Samuel portrays Saul as a colorful personality with excesses--as the classic tragic hero. Moreover, Saul's excellent virtues qualified him for the monarchy. He had courage and military power. Saul was modest and shy. In contrast to the positive portrayal of Saul in some biblical narrative, many other passages in the Hebrew Bible portray Saul negatively--as a paranoid man who chased demons, as obsessed with the pursuit of David. Thus he struggles constantly with his own family members as well as his circle of friends. From the battle at Michmas till the last day of his life, fear is Saul's constant companion. Readers of this volume will rediscover Saul, will have a better understanding of his achievements and failures as the first king of Israel. We trust that this study will afford a provocative and useful insight into the character of Saul.
This is the first systematic study of the Lithuanian yeshivas that flourished from 1802 to 1914 in their social and cultural context; their legacy still dominates orthodox Jewish society. The main focus is the yeshiva of Volozhin, which in its independence of the local community was the model for everything that followed, but chapters are also devoted to the yeshivas of Slobodka and Telz, and to the kollel system.
In From Metaphysics to Midrash, Shaul Magid explores the exegetical tradition of Isaac Luria and his followers within the historical context in 16th-century Safed, a unique community that brought practitioners of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam into close contact with one another. Luria's scripture became a theater in which kabbalists redrew boundaries of difference in areas of ethnicity, gender, and the human relation to the divine. Magid investigates how cultural influences altered scriptural exegesis of Lurianic Kabbala in its philosophical, hermeneutical, and historical perspectives. He suggests that Luria and his followers were far from cloistered. They used their considerable skills to weigh in on important matters of the day, offering, at times, some surprising solutions to perennial theological problems.
Two Israeli experts show that, contrary to its image, Hamas is essentially a social and political movement, providing extensive community services and responding constantly to political realities through bargaining and power brokering.
The Intifada inspired a new kind of Palestinian radicalism, a radicalism borne on young shoulders, a radicalism that conducts its dialogue with Israel and the local population via the stone, the slingshot, the petro bomb, and the leaflet. The leaflets bring the people into the streets and instruct them what to do, and when, and how. They determine the boundaries of the permissible. If one wants to know why the Intifada erupted, what the Palestinians think and what they are fighting for, how they operate and how they perceive Israel, and whether there is anything to talk about, one should read the Palestinian leaflets. They are the documents from which the Palestinians go forth and to which they return. Mishal and Aharoni first provide some historical background to the Intifada and deal with the question of how it came about and what prevented its outbreak during the first twenty years of Israeli rule in the territories. They then turn to the leaflets and examine in detail their contents and motivations. Speaking Stones concludes with a selection of over fifty translated leaflets of the two leading bodies in the Intifada: the United National Command and the Islamic Resistance Movement, known as Hamas.
Previous publications on the generalization of the Thomae formulae to Zn curves have emphasized the theory's implications in mathematical physics and depended heavily on applied mathematical techniques. This book redevelops these previous results demonstrating how they can be derived directly from the basic properties of theta functions as functions on compact Riemann surfaces. "Generalizations of Thomae's Formula for Zn Curves" includes several refocused proofs developed in a generalized context that is more accessible to researchers in related mathematical fields such as algebraic geometry, complex analysis, and number theory. This book is intended for mathematicians with an interest in complex analysis, algebraic geometry or number theory as well as physicists studying conformal field theory.
Shaul Bassi is Associate Professor of English and Postcolonial Literature at Ca'Foscari University of Venice, Italy. His publications include Visions of Venice in Shakespeare, with Laura Tosi, and Experiences of Freedom in Postcolonial Literatures and Cultures, with Annalisa Oboe.
The disintegration of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s ended the Yugoslavian Federation, which for nearly fifty years had succeeded in preserving a delicate coexistence among the ethnic, religious, and national components contained within it. Following this, the Balkans became a violent arena of confrontation due to these warring factions. Islamic Terror and the Balkans describes and analyzes the growth of radical Islam in the Balkans from its inception during the years of World War II to the present. Shay's account shows how the Bosnian War between the Muslims and the Serbs provided the historical opportunity for radical Islam to penetrate the Balkans, at a time when the Muslim world, headed by Iran and the various Islamic terror organizations, including Al-Qaida, came to the aid of the Muslims in Bosnia. In the framework of the mobilization of these entities in aiding the Muslim side in the conflict, the operational and organizational infrastructure of Iranian intelligence and the Revolutionary Guards was established, as well as those operated by other Islamic terror organizations. When war in Bosnia ended, terrorist infrastructures remained in the Balkans and served as a basis for these entities' intervention in the confrontation that developed in the Balkans in the late-1990s, specifically in Kosovo and Macedonia. Today, the Balkans serve as a forefront on European soil for Islamic terror organizations, which exploits this area to promote their activities in Western Europe, Russia, and other focal points worldwide. Shay's analysis of terror activity in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and exposure of terror cells throughout the world, and particularly in Europe, attest to the increasing involvement of the "Balkan alumni" and of the terrorist infrastructure from this area in creating global terror activity.
This book examines a basic assumption behind most of the critical, progressive thinking of our times: that trade unions are necessarily tools for solidarity and are integral to a more equal and just society. Shaul A. Duke assesses the trade union's potential to promote equality in ethnically and racially diverse societies by offering an in-depth look into how unions operate; how power flows between union levels; where inequality originates; and the role of union members in union dynamics. By analyzing the trade union's effects on working-class inequality in Palestine during 1920-1948, this book shifts the conventional emphasis on worker-employer relations to that of worker-worker relations. It offers a conceptualization of how strong union members directed union policy from below in order to eliminate competition, often by excluding marginalized groups. The comparison of the union experiences of Palestinian-Arabs, Jewish-Yemeni immigrants, and Jewish women offers a fresh look into the labor history of Palestine and its social stratification.
Since Freud, the study of dreams has typically involved inquiry into past and present emotional states. The ancients, unfamiliar with the intricate byways of the human soul revealed by modern psychology, typically saw dreams as channels of communication between human beings and external sources. Shaul Bar explores the etymology of key terms for dreams in the Hebrew Bible, presents dozens of examples of biblical dreams and visions, and categorizes them as prophetic, symbolic, or incubation. He studies biblical dreams and visions in the context of similar phenomena in the literature of neighboring cultures and analyzes the functions of dream reports in the biblical corpus. The literature of dream interpretation in Egypt and Mesopotamia informs Bar's treatment of the structure of dream accounts as conforming to the three-part model (setting, message, response) proposed for ancient Near Eastern dream accounts in A. Leo Oppenheim's classic work on dream interpretation. Symbolic dreams, whether or not God is their source, contain no divine appearance and require interpretation to be understood. While oneiro-criticism was a significant profession in ancient Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible presents only two such experts, Joseph and Daniel. Both were active in royal courts, and the success of both in interpreting the rulers' dreams served to confirm the superiority of the God of Israel. Ambivalence characterizes the attitude toward dreams and visions in prophetic literature. Joel and Job allow that they have some value. But Jeremiah, Zechariah, Isaiah, and Ecclesiates find no religious significance in them and even treat them as tools of deceit. The Talmud presents no consensus about whether dreams are a legitimate form of communication from God. Although a guild of professional interpreters existed in Jerusalem and the Talmud includes a short dream book, many Sages expressed skepticism about such alleged divine messages. Dreams also serve important functions within the literary world of the Hebrew Bible. Bar shows how Jacob's dream at Bethel serves to explain the sanctity of the place and detach it from its Canaanite context, how the dreams in the Joseph cycle show the hand of divine providence in the descent to Egypt followed by the ascent to the Promised Land, how Solomon's dream at Gibeon serves to legitimate Solomon's rule, and how Nebuchadnezzar's dreams served to emphasize once again that it is the Lord who guides universal history.
Planting Nature exposes a collaboration that cuts across environmental, governmental, and business interests, that subverts the power of people who think that they are building a better world by planting trees.
This volume presents editions of fifty-five Jewish Babylonian Aramaic magic bowls from the Schøyen Collection, with accompanying introductions, translations, philological notes, photographs and indices. The themes covered are magical seals and signet-rings.
A Paradigm for Decentralized Process Modeling presents a novel approach to decentralized process modeling that combines both trends and suggests a paradigm for decentralized PCEs, supporting concerted efforts among geographically-dispersed teams - each local individual or team with its own autonomous process - with emphasis on flexible control over the degree of collaboration versus autonomy provided. A key guideline in this approach is to supply abstraction mechanisms whereby pre-existing processes (or workflows) can be encapsulated and retain security of their internal artifacts and status data, while agreeing with other processes on formal interfaces through which all their interactions are conducted on intentionally shared information. This book is primarily intended to provide an in-depth discussion of decentralized process modeling and enactment technology, covering both high-level concepts and a full-blown realization of these concepts in a concrete system. Either the whole book or selected chapters could be used in a graduate course on software engineering, software process, or software development environments, or even for a course on workflow systems outside computer science (e.g., in a classical engineering department for engineering design, or in a business school for business practices or enterprise-wide management, or in the medical informatics department of a health science institution concerned with computer-assistance for managed care). Selected portions of the book, such as section 2.2 on Marvel, could also be employed as a case study in advanced undergraduate software engineering courses. A Paradigm for Decentralized Process Modeling is a valuable resource for both researchers and practitioners, particularly in software engineering, software development environments, and software process and workflow management, but also in electrical, mechanical, civil and other areas of engineering which have analogous needs for design processes, environmental support and concurrent engineering, and beyond to private and public sector workflow management and control, groupware support, and heterogeneous distributed systems in general.
In the aftermath of the terror campaign launched on Sep- tember 11, 2001, the United States declared war against global terror. It identified the al-Qaida organization and Afghanistan under the Taliban regime as the initial targets of the offensive, and Iraq as the next. However, aside from the countries included by President Bush in the "Axis of Evil" (Iraq, Iran, and North Korea), a triangle of countries in the Red Sea region are also potential targets in the war against terror—Sudan, Somalia, and Yemen. This assessment is based on the historical record: Each of these countries has in one form or another provided refuge for Islamic terror organizations. Sudan, Somalia, and Yemen are Muslim states, situated at the periphery of the heart of Islam, which is generally identified as the Arab Peninsula, Egypt, and the Fertile Crescent. This area is of strategic significance to both sides of the vital shipping route that connects the Arabian Sea (the Indian Ocean) and the Red Sea. Osama Bin Laden, al-Qaida, and members of other radical Islamic organizations have found allies and safe havens in both the heart of Islam and its periphery. The presence of radical Islamic entities in the region, alongside local problems and conflicts rooted in national, ethnic, and tribal issues, has turned the Red Sea countries into a nucleus of instability and dissension, one that threatens the security and peace of both neighboring and more distant countries. Shay examines the three countries designated as the Red Sea Terror Triangle, and explores the ties each maintains with Islamic terror, as well as the reciprocal links between them. Understanding these countries is of critical importance, since all or some of them may constitute a base for Islamic terror organizations in the future.
On the open landscape of Israel and the West Bank, where pine and cypress forests grow alongside olive groves, tree planting has become symbolic of conflicting claims to the land. Palestinians cultivate olive groves as a vital agricultural resource, while the Israeli government has made restoration of mixed-growth forests a national priority. Although both sides plant for a variety of purposes, both have used tree planting to assert their presence on—and claim to—disputed land. Shaul Ephraim Cohen has conducted an unprecedented study of planting in the region and the control of land it signifies. In The Politics of Planting, he provides historical background and examines both the politics behind Israel's afforestation policy its consequences. Focusing on the open land surrounding Jerusalem and four Palestinian villages outside the city, this study offers a new perspective on the conflict over land use in a region where planting has become a political tool. For the valuable data it presents—collected from field work, previously unpublished documents, and interviews—and the insight it provides into this political struggle, this will be an important book for anyone studying the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Hasidism Incarnate contends that much of modern Judaism in the West developed in reaction to Christianity and in defense of Judaism as a unique tradition. Ironically enough, this occurred even as modern Judaism increasingly dovetailed with Christianity with regard to its ethos, aesthetics, and attitude toward ritual and faith. Shaul Magid argues that the Hasidic movement in Eastern Europe constitutes an alternative "modernity," one that opens a new window on Jewish theological history. Unlike Judaism in German lands, Hasidism did not develop under a "Christian gaze" and had no need to be apologetic of its positions. Unburdened by an apologetic agenda (at least toward Christianity), it offered a particular reading of medieval Jewish Kabbalah filtered through a focus on the charismatic leader that resulted in a religious worldview that has much in common with Christianity. It is not that Hasidic masters knew about Christianity; rather, the basic tenets of Christianity remained present, albeit often in veiled form, in much kabbalistic teaching that Hasidism took up in its portrayal of the charismatic figure of the zaddik, whom it often described in supernatural terms.
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