This book presents developments of techniques for detection and analysis of two electrons resulting from the interaction of a single incident electron with a solid surface. Spin dependence in scattering of spin-polarized electrons from magnetic and non-magnetic surfaces is governed by exchange and spin-orbit effects. The effects of spin and angular electron momentum are shown through symmetry of experimental geometries: (i) normal and off normal electron incidence on a crystal surface, (ii) spin polarization directions within mirror planes of the surface, and (iii) rotation and interchange of detectors with respect to the surface normal. Symmetry considerations establish relationships between the spin asymmetry of two-electron distributions and the spin asymmetry of Spectral Density Function of the sample, hence providing information on the spin-dependent sample electronic structure. Detailed energy and angular distributions of electron pairs carry information on the electron-electron interaction and electron correlation inside the solid. The “exchange – correlation hole” associated with Coulomb and exchange electron correlation in solids can be visualized using spin-polarized two-electron spectroscopy. Also spin entanglement of electron pairs can be probed. A description of correlated electron pairs generation from surfaces using other types of incident particles, such as photons, ions, positrons is also presented.
This book presents developments of techniques for detection and analysis of two electrons resulting from the interaction of a single incident electron with a solid surface. Spin dependence in scattering of spin-polarized electrons from magnetic and non-magnetic surfaces is governed by exchange and spin-orbit effects. The effects of spin and angular electron momentum are shown through symmetry of experimental geometries: (i) normal and off normal electron incidence on a crystal surface, (ii) spin polarization directions within mirror planes of the surface, and (iii) rotation and interchange of detectors with respect to the surface normal. Symmetry considerations establish relationships between the spin asymmetry of two-electron distributions and the spin asymmetry of Spectral Density Function of the sample, hence providing information on the spin-dependent sample electronic structure. Detailed energy and angular distributions of electron pairs carry information on the electron-electron interaction and electron correlation inside the solid. The “exchange – correlation hole” associated with Coulomb and exchange electron correlation in solids can be visualized using spin-polarized two-electron spectroscopy. Also spin entanglement of electron pairs can be probed. A description of correlated electron pairs generation from surfaces using other types of incident particles, such as photons, ions, positrons is also presented.
This book recounts one of the greatest tragedies of the twentieth century: the siege of Leningrad. It is based on the searing testimony of eyewitnesses, some of whom managed to survive, while others were to die in streets devastated by bombing, in icy houses, or the endless bread queues. All of them, nevertheless, wanted to pass on to us the story of the torments they endured, their stoicism, compassion and humanity, and of how people reached out to each other in the nightmare of the siege. Though the siege continues to loom large in collective memory, an overemphasis on the heroic endurance of the victims has tended to distort our understanding of events. In this book, which focuses on the "Time of Death", the harsh winter of 1941-42, Sergey Yarov adopts a new approach, demonstrating that if we are to truly appreciate the nature of this suffering, we must face the full realities of people's actions and behaviour. Many of the documents published here – letters, diaries, memoirs and interviews not previously available to researchers or retrieved from family archives – show unexpected aspects of what it was like to live in the besieged city. Leningrad changed, and so did the morals, customs and habits of Leningraders. People wanted at all costs to survive. Their notes about the siege reflect a drama which cost a million people their lives. There is no spurious cheeriness and optimism in them, and much that we might like to pass over. But we must not. We have a duty to know the whole, bitter truth about the siege, the price that had to be paid in order to stay human in a time of brutal inhumanity.
Complex plasmas are dusty plasmas in which the density and electric charges of the dust grains are sufficiently high to induce long-range grain-grain interactions, as well as strong absorption of charged-plasma components. Together with the sources replenishing the plasma such systems form a highly dissipative thermodynamically open system that exhibits many features of collective behaviour generally found in complex systems. Most notably among them are self-organized patterns such as plasma crystals, plasma clusters, dust stars and further spectacular new structures. Beyond their intrinsic scientific interest, the study of complex plasmas grows in importance in a great variety of fields, ranging from space-plasma sciences to applied fields such as plasma processing, thin-film deposition and even the production of computer chips by plasma etching, in which strongly interacting clouds of complex plasmas can cause major contamination of the final product. Intended as first introductory but comprehensive survey of this rapidly emerging field, the present book addresses postgraduate students as well as specialist and nonspecialist researchers with a general background in either plasma physics, space sciences or the physics of complex systems.
The Eurasianist movement was launched in the 1920s by a group of young Russian émigrés who had recently emerged from years of fighting and destruction. Drawing on the cultural fermentation of Russian modernism in the arts and literature, as well as in politics and scholarship, the movement sought to reimagine the former imperial space in the wake of Europe's Great War. The Eurasianists argued that as an heir to the nomadic empires of the steppes, Russia should follow a non-European path of development. In the context of rising Nazi and Soviet powers, the Eurasianists rejected liberal democracy and sought alternatives to Communism and capitalism. Deeply connected to the Russian cultural and scholarly milieus, Eurasianism played a role in the articulation of the structuralist paradigm in interwar Europe. However, the movement was not as homogenous as its name may suggest. Its founders disagreed on a range of issues and argued bitterly about what weight should be accorded to one or another idea in their overall conception of Eurasia. In this first English language history of the Eurasianist movement based on extensive archival research, Sergey Glebov offers a historically grounded critique of the concept of Eurasia by interrogating the context in which it was first used to describe the former Russian Empire. This definitive study will appeal to students and scholars of Russian and European history and culture.
This monograph describes mathematical models that enable prediction of phase compositions for various technological processes, as developed on the base of a complex physico-chemical analysis of reaction. It studies thermodynamics and kinetics of specific stages of complex pyrometallurgical processes involving boron, carbon, sulfur, tungsten, phosphorus, and many more, as well as their exposure to all sorts of factors. First and foremost, this enables to optimize processes and technologies at the stage of design, while traditional empirical means of development of new technologies are basically incapable of providing an optimal solution. Simulation results of metals and alloys production, welding and coating technologies allow obtaining materials with pre-given composition, structure and properties in a cost-saving and conscious manner. Moreover, a so-called "inverse problem", i.e., selecting source materials which would ensure the required results, cannot be solved by any other means.
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