Thirty papers provide information on the magnitude of corrosion damage and how testing and evaluation techniques assist in minimizing failures. New developments in computer aided evaluations are highlighted along with advances in electrochemical techniques. Also covered are measurements in soil, wat
Contains papers presented at a November 2000 symposium, examining laboratory evaluation methods, test methods, and model prediction in research on atmospheric corrosion, corrosion of rebar in concrete, marine corrosion, and other related corrosion phenomena. Topics include degradation of fiber reinf
THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE tests for materials evaluation requires consideration of pertinent forms of corrosion and details of the environment and methods of fabrication. Mechanical properties, cost, and material availability are also important. This chapter describes the rationale of test selection and supplies background on corrosion testing.
Contains papers presented at a November 2000 symposium, examining laboratory evaluation methods, test methods, and model prediction in research on atmospheric corrosion, corrosion of rebar in concrete, marine corrosion, and other related corrosion phenomena. Topics include degradation of fiber reinf
THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY has become one of the key sectors of the economy throughout the world. In industrialized countries it is estimated that between 10 and 16 % of the working population is employed in activities related to the automotive sector.
A VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION materials has been used in flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems on utility boilers. They can all be classified into three major categories: metals, organics, and nonmetallic inorganics.
IN THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY, a number of business factors exist that tend to discourage a consistent approach to technical issues such as corrosion testing. Some of the major issues are as follows: 1. In many processes the volumes are small and very expensive, creating an economic justification for testing of all processes that is difficult to support. This leads to equipment that is flexible and can handle varied process conditions and chemistries. 2. Being first on the market with a pharmaceutical product is of major business importance. Because speed is a major issue, many technical issues (id est, corrosion) are frequently over engineered from the standpoint of good engineering practices. This allows flexible equipment to be capable of handling varied conditions and chemistries to support rapid product development. This then limits the need for corrosion testing of all processes. 3. Many reactions are multi-step syntheses, frequently requiring varied chemicals and reaction conditions. Many of the reaction components are proprietary and uncommon to traditional corrosion engineering data sources. Attempting to simulate these varied uncommon chemicals and chemical environments is difficult at best. 4. In many cases the chemistry of the process is still being modified well into development, and some even into production. Successful corrosion control depends on teamwork in which all parties of the project team are aware of process changes being considered and can develop a materials compatibility strategy accordingly. 5. The percentage of products that survive from discovery to production is very small. The time from product decision to production is very small. This also drives the need for flexible equipment, and limits the ability to corrosion testing for a specific process.
THE MOST COMMONLY USED materials for construction of piers and docks are reinforced or prestressed concrete, steel, and timber. Composite materials are used primarily for mechanical applications such as pipe hangers and railings, but the use of composite materials in structural applications such as piling and gratings continues to increase. Other metals, primarily stainless steels and aluminum alloys, are often used for mechanical applications and fasteners. The primary criteria for selection of materials for marine piers and docks are past experience, cost, and availability. However, corrosion testing is used to evaluate candidates for many specific applications. This testing is commonly in the form of the evaluation of either full-scale or subscale components, but direct testing of base materials is also performed in many cases.
CORROSION MONITORING is an integral part of any water treatment program. It is used to determine treatment effectiveness and to establish the optimum level of chemical treatment that is most cost effective, not necessarily the cheapest per pound.
CORROSION OF ELECTRIC POWER transmission lines has been a primary cause of in-service equipment degradation. An integral part of the effort to mitigate corrosion processes is the use of standard and nonstandard testing methods for their prevention, correct recognition, and damage extent determination. Corrosion testing also serves multiple functions in equipment design, manufacture, and service life extension.
CORROSION OF AIRCRAFT structure has plagued the airline industry since the use of metals in aircraft manufacture. It is costly both in unscheduled downtime and man-hours required for repair. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) reported in 1983 that corrosion cost the airlines between
EXTENSIVE EXPERIENCE, TOGETHER with many exposure programs, has shown that atmospheric corrosion is a phenomenon that varies greatly from location to location [1]. Studies throughout the world have revealed that the rate of atmospheric corrosion is a function of the metal being tested, the location, the climate, the proximity to pollutants, and a variety of other factors. Most people understand that atmospheric corrosion can occur in outdoor exposures, but more recent experience has shown that corrosion can occur from indoor atmospheres under certain circumstances [2].
FAILURE IN ELECTRONICS DUE TO corrosion has become a significant factor because of the extremely complex systems (microchips, integrated circuits, computers, et cetera) that have been developed and the increasing demand on their reliability. Electronics are now a part of all industries, ranging from transportation industries to medical and consumer products. Technological advances have resulted in the development of sophisticated components with closer spacing so that extremely low levels of corrosive contaminants can cause failure. Testing for this type of behavior is difficult and costly. Further advances in electronics can only be made where corrosion issues are addressed and reliability is maintained. Many publications have appeared in the technical literature on the subject of corrosion in electronics with more and more emphasis on testing [1-10].
IN THE FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY, the workhorse materials are the 300 series austenitic stainless steels (id est, S30400, S30403, S31600, and S31603). S30100 and 30200 are used, but less frequently. The 300 series alloys are used because they resist corrosion attack by most environments in the industry, are easily fabricated, do not cause contamination of the products, and are readily sanitized [1-3]. As with any industry, there are many other unique materials that are also used. In neutral or slightly acid environments where chlorides are significant, chloride-resistant stainless steel and/or other high alloy materials are used [4]. Duplex stainless steels are being used more and more frequently [5,6]. In some services like fats and edible oil, copper or copper-containing alloys should be avoided.
THE OBJECT OF THIS chapter is to help plant and project engineers understand how corrosion data are generated and used, in order to optimize chemical plant performance and prevent process safety incidents.
THIS CHAPTER COVERS corrosion and corrosion testing for the water side and steam side of utility and industrial steam generation, fossil fuel, and nuclear units. It does not cover primary cycles of nuclear units, fire side in fossil fuel fired steam generators, gas turbines, and cooling water systems.
TRANSPORTATION IN THE UNITED STATES is essential to the physical and economic well-being of the country. In general, the transportation infrastructure in the United States has stood up well, leading to a false sense of security and to our taking it for granted. We are currently faced with the need to maintain, repair, and reconstruct the existing systems to extend their life expectancies, or to develop new technologies to replace them with more efficient and effective systems. To understand these challenges, an overview of the current material and testing procedures has been prepared.
CORROSION TESTING of pipelines is done for several reasons. One is to evaluate the pipeline condition to determine whether or not it is safe to operate. If repairs are needed, testing is performed to determine if repair is feasible or if replacement is needed. Testing is performed to track the pipe condition so that repair or replacement can be budgeted. Another reason for testing pipes is to evaluate the effectiveness of corrosion control measures, such as inhibitors for internal pipe surfaces or cathodic protection for internal or external surfaces. This chapter provides information on test techniques that can be applied to metallic pipes above ground or buried in an aqueous environment. Prior to discussing test techniques, the chapter will discuss briefly the materials and corrosion issues affecting pipelines. This chapter is by no means a detailed text on corrosion of pipelines, and the reader is encouraged to consult the references for further detail.
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY is usually divided into oil and gas production, refining, and oil and gas products. These encompass a wide variety of corrosive environments that must be considered during the process of materials selection and corrosion control management. The corrosive environments include acid gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and salt water. Refinery operations involve complex chemical systems and many corrosive environments. Management of these systems involves a wide range of activities by the producing, refining, and service companies.
THIS CHAPTER discusses the reasons for running various corrosion tests on military equipment including airplanes and missiles, and the equipment needed to support them.
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