The Golden Age of Piracy in China, 1520–1810 exposes readers to the little-known history of Chinese piracy in the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries through a short narrative and selection of documentary evidence. In this three-hundred-year period, Chinese piracy was unsurpassed in size and scope anywhere else in the world. The book includes a carefully selected and wide range of Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, English, and Japanese sources—some translated for the first time—to illustrate the complexity and variety of piratical activities in Asian waters. These documents include archival criminal cases and depositions of pirates and victims, government reports and proclamations, memoirs of coastal residents and pirate captives, and written and oral folklore handed down for generations. The book also illuminates the important role that pirates played in the political, economic, social, and cultural transformations of early modern China and the world. An historical perspective provides an important vantage point to understand piracy as a recurring cyclical phenomenon inseparably connected with the past.
Since the victory of the 1949 revolution the incumbency of the Chinese Communist Party has been characterized by an almost relentless struggle to legitimize its monopoly on political power. During the Mao era, attempts to derive legitimacy focused primarily on mass participation in political affairs, a blend of Marxist and nationalist ideology, and the charismatic authority of Mao Zedong. The dramatic failure of the Cultural Revolution forced the post-Mao leadership to discard these discredited paradigms of legitimacy and move towards an almost exclusively performance based concept founded on market economic reform. The reforms during the 1980s generated a number of unwelcome but inevitable side effects such as official corruption, high unemployment and significant socio-economic inequality. These factors culminated ultimately in the 1989 demonstrations in Tiananmen Square and throughout China. Since Tiananmen the party has sought to diversify the basis of its legitimacy by adhering more closely to constitutional procedures in decision making and, to a certain extent, by reinventing itself as a conservative nationalist party. This probing study of post-communist revolution Chinese politics sets out to discover if there is a plausible alternative to the electoral mode or if legitimacy is the exclusive domain of the multi-party system.
Trade policy has moved from the wings onto center stage. Between 1992 and 2000, US exports rose by 55 percent. By the year 2000, trade summed to 26 percent of US GDP, and the United States imported almost two-thirds of its oil and was the world's largest host country for foreign investors. America's interest in a more open and prosperous foreign market is now squarely economic. This volume presents cases on five important trade negotiations, all focused on "making the rules," or the process of establishing how the trade system would operate. The cases not only explore the changing substance of trade agreements but also delve into the negotiation process. They explore not just the what of trade, but the who, how, and why of decision-making. By examining some of the most important recent negotiations, the reader can come to understand not just the larger issues surrounding trade, but how players seek to exert influence and how the system is evolving on a day-to-day basis. This book presents a coherent description of the facts that will allow for discussion and independent conclusions about policies, politics, and processes.
This book focuses on the advances in transtibial prosthetic technology and targets research in the evolution of the powered prosthesis such as the BiOM, which was derived from considerable research and development at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The concept of the book spans the historical evolution of prosthetic applications from passive to new and futuristic robotic prosthetic technologies. The author describes the reasons for amputation, surgical procedures, and an historical perspective of the prosthesis for the lower limb. He also addresses the phases and sub-phases of gait and compensatory mechanisms arising for a transtibial prosthesis and links the compensatory mechanisms to long-term morbidities. The general technologies for gait analysis central to prosthetic design and the inherent biomechanics foundations for analysis are also explored. The book reports on recent-past to current-term applications with passive elastic prostheses. The core of the book deals with futuristic robotic prostheses including their function and major subsystems, such as actuator technology, state machine control, and machine learning applications. Finally, the envisioned future trends in the prosthetic technology space are presented.
This deeply informed and clearly written text provides a comprehensive and comprehensible history of China from prehistory to the present. Now updated to include recent political events and scientific research, the book focuses on the interaction of humans and their environment. Tracing changes in the physical and cultural world that is home to a fifth of humankind, Robert B. Marks illuminates the paradoxes inherent in China’s environmental narrative, demonstrating how historically sustainable practices can, in fact, be profoundly ecologically unsound. The author also reevaluates China’s traditional “heroic” storyline, highlighting the marginalization of nature and contacts with other peoples that followed the spread of Chinese civilization while examining the development of a distinctly Chinese way of relating to and altering the environment. Unmatched in his ability to synthesize a complex subject clearly and cogently, Marks has written an accessible yet nuanced history for any student interested in China, past or present, or indeed in the world’s environmental future.
Amid early twentieth-century China’s epochal shifts, a vital and prolific commercial publishing industry emerged. Recruiting late Qing literati, foreign-trained academics, and recent graduates of the modernized school system to work as authors and editors, publishers produced textbooks, reference books, book series, and reprints of classical texts in large quantities at a significant profit. Work for major publishers provided a living to many Chinese intellectuals and offered them a platform to transform Chinese cultural life. In The Power of Print in Modern China, Robert Culp explores the world of commercial publishing to offer a new perspective on modern China’s cultural transformations. Culp examines China’s largest and most influential publishing companies—Commercial Press, Zhonghua Book Company, and World Book Company—during the late Qing and Republican periods and into the early years of the People’s Republic. He reconstructs editors’ cultural activities and work lives as a lens onto the role of intellectuals in cultural change. Examining China’s distinct modes of industrial publishing, Culp explains the emergence of the modern Chinese intellectual through commercial and industrial processes rather than solely through political revolution and social movements. An original account of Chinese intellectual and cultural history as well as global book history, The Power of Print in Modern China illuminates the production of new forms of knowledge and culture in the twentieth century.
It has been thirteen years since soldiers of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) raced into the center of Beijing, ordered to recover "at any cost" the city's most important landmark, Tiananmen Square, from student demonstrators. The U.S. and other Western countries recoiled in disgust after the horrific incident, and the relationship between the U.S. and China went from amity and strategic cooperation to hostility, distrust, and misunderstanding. Time has healed many of the wounds from those terrible days of June 1989, and bilateral strains have been eased in light of the countries' joint opposition to international terrorism. Yet China and U.S. remain locked in opposition, as strategic thinkers and military planners on both sides plot future conflict scenarios with the other side as principal enemy. Polls indicate that most Americans consider China an "unfriendly" country, and anti-American sentiment is growing in China. According to Robert Suettinger, the calamity in Tiananmen Square marked a critical turning point in U.S.-China affairs. In Beyond Tiananmen, Suettinger traces the turbulent bilateral relationship since that time, with a particular focus on the internal political factors that shaped it. Through a series of candid anecdotes and observations, Suettinger sheds light on the complex and confused decision-making process that affected relations between the U.S. and China between 1989 and the end of the Clinton presidency in 2000. By illuminating the way domestic political ideas, beliefs, and prejudices affect foreign policymaking, Suettinger reveals policy decisions as outcomes of complex processes, rather than the results of grand strategic trends. He also refutes the view that strategic confrontation between the superpowers is inevitable. Suettinger sees considerable opportunity for cooperation and improvement in what is likely to be the single most important bilateral relationship of the twenty-first century. He cautions, however
Building on his long-standing work in metaphysics and Asian philosophy, Robert Cummings Neville presents a series of essays that cumulatively articulate a contemporary, progressive Confucian position as a global philosophy. Through analysis of the metaphysical and moral traditions of Confucianism, Neville brings these traditions into the twenty-first century. According to Confucianism, rituals define most of our relations with other individuals, social institutions, and nature, and while rituals make possible the positive institutions of high human civilization, they may also lead to harmful behaviors, including racism, xenophobia, and sexism. Neville argues that the amendment of rituals that institutionalize oppression is a positive task, which should be undertaken from within a skillfully ritualized life rather than in the form of external criticism. Confucianism, in Neville's hands, is a left-wing, progressive, liberal political philosophy, one that can address institutionalized oppression and suggest a path for moving forward.
High precision solar position algorithms, programs, software and source-code for computing the solar vector, solar coordinates & sun angles in Microprocessor, PLC, Arduino, PIC and PC-based sun tracking devices or dynamic sun following hardware
High precision solar position algorithms, programs, software and source-code for computing the solar vector, solar coordinates & sun angles in Microprocessor, PLC, Arduino, PIC and PC-based sun tracking devices or dynamic sun following hardware
This book details Solar-Tracking, Automatic Sun-Tracking-Systems and Solar-Trackers. Book and literature review is ideal for sun and moon tracking in solar applications for sun-rich countries such as the USA, Spain, Portugal, Mediterranean, Italy, Greece, Mexico, Portugal, China, India, Brazil, Chili, Argentina, South America, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Middle East, Iran, Iraq, etc. A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Like a satellite tracker or moon tracker, it tracks the celestial object in the sky on its orbital path of apparent movement. A programmable computer based solar tracking device includes principles of solar tracking, solar tracking systems, as well as microcontroller, microprocessor and/or PC based solar tracking control to orientate solar reflectors, solar lenses, photovoltaic panels or other optical configurations towards the sun. Motorized space frames and kinematic systems ensure motion dynamics and employ drive technology and gearing principles to steer optical configurations such as mangin, parabolic, conic, or cassegrain solar energy collectors to face the sun and follow the sun movement contour continuously. In harnessing power from the sun through a solar tracker or practical solar tracking system, renewable energy control automation systems require automatic solar tracking software and solar position algorithms to accomplish dynamic motion control with control automation architecture, circuit boards and hardware. On-axis sun tracking system such as the altitude-azimuth dual axis or multi-axis solar tracker systems use a sun tracking algorithm or ray tracing sensors or software to ensure the sun's passage through the sky is traced with high precision in automated solar tracker applications, right through summer solstice, solar equinox and winter solstice. From sun tracing software perspective, the sonnet Tracing The Sun has a literal meaning. Within the context of sun track and trace, this book explains that the sun's daily path across the sky is directed by relatively simple principles, and if grasped/understood, then it is relatively easy to trace the sun with sun following software. Sun position computer software for tracing the sun are available as open source code, sources that is listed in this book. Ironically there was even a system called sun chaser, said to have been a solar positioner system known for chasing the sun throughout the day. Using solar equations in an electronic circuit for solar tracking is quite simple, even if you are a novice, but mathematical solar equations are over complicated by academic experts and professors in text-books, journal articles and internet websites. In terms of solar hobbies, scholars, students and Hobbyist's looking at solar tracking electronics or PC programs for solar tracking are usually overcome by the sheer volume of scientific material and internet resources, which leaves many developers in frustration when search for simple experimental solar tracking source-code for their on-axis sun-tracking systems. This booklet will simplify the search for the mystical sun tracking formulas for your sun tracker innovation and help you develop your own autonomous solar tracking controller. By directing the solar collector directly into the sun, a solar harvesting means or device can harness sunlight or thermal heat. This is achieved with the help of sun angle formulas, solar angle formulas or solar tracking procedures for the calculation of sun's position in the sky. Automatic sun tracking system software includes algorithms for solar altitude azimuth angle calculations required in following the sun across the sky. In using the longitude, latitude GPS coordinates of the solar tracker location, these sun tracking software tools supports precision solar tracking by determining the solar altitude-azimuth coordinates for the sun trajectory in altitude-azimuth tracking at the tracker location, using certain sun angle formulas in sun vector calculations. Instead of follow the sun software, a sun tracking sensor such as a sun sensor or webcam or video camera with vision based sun following image processing software can also be used to determine the position of the sun optically. Such optical feedback devices are often used in solar panel tracking systems and dish tracking systems. Dynamic sun tracing is also used in solar surveying, DNI analyser and sun surveying systems that build solar infographics maps with solar radiance, irradiance and DNI models for GIS (geographical information system). In this way geospatial methods on solar/environment interaction makes use use of geospatial technologies (GIS, Remote Sensing, and Cartography).Climatic data and weather station or weather center data, as well as queries from sky servers and solar resource database systems (i.e. on DB2, Sybase, Oracle, SQL, MySQL) may also be associated with solar GIS maps. In such solar resource modelling systems, a pyranometer or solarimeter is normally used in addition to measure direct and indirect, scattered, dispersed, reflective radiation for a particular geographical location. Sunlight analysis is important in flash photography where photographic lighting are important for photographers. GIS systems are used by architects who add sun shadow applets to study architectural shading or sun shadow analysis, solar flux calculations, optical modelling or to perform weather modelling. Such systems often employ a computer operated telescope type mechanism with ray tracing program software as a solar navigator or sun tracer that determines the solar position and intensity. The purpose of this booklet is to assist developers to track and trace suitable source-code and solar tracking algorithms for their application, whether a hobbyist, scientist, technician or engineer. Many open-source sun following and tracking algorithms and source-code for solar tracking programs and modules are freely available to download on the internet today. Certain proprietary solar tracker kits and solar tracking controllers include a software development kit SDK for its application programming interface API attributes (Pebble). Widget libraries, widget toolkits, GUI toolkit and UX libraries with graphical control elements are also available to construct the graphical user interface (GUI) for your solar tracking or solar power monitoring program. The solar library used by solar position calculators, solar simulation software and solar contour calculators include machine program code for the solar hardware controller which are software programmed into Micro-controllers, Programmable Logic Controllers PLC, programmable gate arrays, Arduino processor or PIC processor. PC based solar tracking is also high in demand using C++, Visual Basic VB, as well as MS Windows, Linux and Apple Mac based operating systems for sun path tables on Matlab, Excel. Some books and internet webpages use other terms, such as: sun angle calculator, sun position calculator or solar angle calculator. As said, such software code calculate the solar azimuth angle, solar altitude angle, solar elevation angle or the solar Zenith angle (Zenith solar angle is simply referenced from vertical plane, the mirror of the elevation angle measured from the horizontal or ground plane level). Similar software code is also used in solar calculator apps or the solar power calculator apps for IOS and Android smartphone devices. Most of these smartphone solar mobile apps show the sun path and sun-angles for any location and date over a 24 hour period. Some smartphones include augmented reality features in which you can physically see and look at the solar path through your cell phone camera or mobile phone camera at your phone's specific GPS location. In the computer programming and digital signal processing (DSP) environment, (free/open source) program code are available for VB, .Net, Delphi, Python, C, C+, C++, Swift, ADM, F, Flash, Basic, QBasic, GBasic, KBasic, SIMPL language, Squirrel, Solaris, Assembly language on operating systems such as MS Windows, Apple Mac, DOS or Linux OS. Software algorithms predicting position of the sun in the sky are commonly available as graphical programming platforms such as Matlab (Mathworks), Simulink models, Java applets, TRNSYS simulations, Scada system apps, Labview module, Beckhoff TwinCAT (Visual Studio), Siemens SPA, mobile and iphone apps, Android or iOS tablet apps, and so forth. At the same time, PLC software code for a range of sun tracking automation technology can follow the profile of sun in sky for Siemens, HP, Panasonic, ABB, Allan Bradley, OMRON, SEW, Festo, Beckhoff, Rockwell, Schneider, Endress Hauser, Fudji electric. Honeywell, Fuchs, Yokonawa, or Muthibishi platforms. Sun path projection software are also available for a range of modular IPC embedded PC motherboards, Industrial PC, PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) and PAC (Programmable Automation Controller) such as the Siemens S7-1200 or Siemens Logo, Beckhoff IPC or CX series, OMRON PLC, Ercam PLC, AC500plc ABB, National Instruments NI PXI or NI cRIO, PIC processor, Intel 8051/8085, IBM (Cell, Power, Brain or Truenorth series), FPGA (Xilinx Altera Nios), Xeon, Atmel megaAVR, or Arduino AtMega microcontroller, with servo motor, stepper motor, direct current DC pulse width modulation PWM (current driver) or alternating current AC SPS or IPC variable frequency drives VFD motor drives (also termed adjustable-frequency drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive) for electrical, mechatronic, pneumatic, or hydraulic solar tracking actuators. The above motion control and robot control systems include analogue or digital interfacing ports on the processors to allow for tracker angle orientation feedback control through one or a combination of angle sensor or angle encoder, shaft encoder, precision encoder, optical encoder, magnetic encoder, direction encoder, rotational encoder, chip encoder, tilt sensor, inclination sensor, or pitch sensor. Note that the tracker's elevation or zenith axis angle may measured using an altitude angle-, declination angle-, inclination angle-, pitch angle-, or vertical angle-, zenith angle- sensor or inclinometer. Similarly the tracker's azimuth axis angle be measured with a azimuth angle-, horizontal angle-, or roll angle- sensor. Chip integrated accelerometer magnetometer gyroscope type angle sensors can also be used to calculate displacement. Other options include the use of thermal imaging systems such as a Fluke thermal imager, or robotic or vision based solar tracker systems that employ face tracking, head tracking, hand tracking, eye tracking and car tracking principles in solar tracking. With unattended decentralised rural, island, isolated, or autonomous off-grid power installations, remote control, monitoring, data acquisition, digital datalogging and online measurement and verification equipment becomes crucial. It assists the operator with supervisory control to monitor the efficiency of remote renewable energy resources and systems and provide valuable web-based feedback in terms of CO2 and clean development mechanism (CDM) reporting. A power quality analyser for diagnostics through internet, WiFi and cellular mobile links is most valuable in frontline troubleshooting and predictive maintenance, where quick diagnostic analysis is required to detect and prevent power quality issues. Solar tracker applications cover a wide spectrum of solar energy and concentrated solar devices, including solar power generation, solar desalination, solar water purification, solar steam generation, solar electricity generation, solar industrial process heat, solar thermal heat storage, solar food dryers, solar water pumping, hydrogen production from methane or producing hydrogen and oxygen from water (HHO) through electrolysis. Many patented or non-patented solar apparatus include tracking in solar apparatus for solar electric generator, solar desalinator, solar steam engine, solar ice maker, solar water purifier, solar cooling, solar refrigeration, USB solar charger, solar phone charging, portable solar charging tracker, solar coffee brewing, solar cooking or solar dying means. Your project may be the next breakthrough or patent, but your invention is held back by frustration in search for the sun tracker you require for your solar powered appliance, solar generator, solar tracker robot, solar freezer, solar cooker, solar drier, solar pump, solar freezer, or solar dryer project. Whether your solar electronic circuit diagram include a simplified solar controller design in a solar electricity project, solar power kit, solar hobby kit, solar steam generator, solar hot water system, solar ice maker, solar desalinator, hobbyist solar panels, hobby robot, or if you are developing professional or hobby electronics for a solar utility or micro scale solar powerplant for your own solar farm or solar farming, this publication may help accelerate the development of your solar tracking innovation. Lately, solar polygeneration, solar trigeneration (solar triple generation), and solar quad generation (adding delivery of steam, liquid/gaseous fuel, or capture food-grade CO$_2$) systems have need for automatic solar tracking. These systems are known for significant efficiency increases in energy yield as a result of the integration and re-use of waste or residual heat and are suitable for compact packaged micro solar powerplants that could be manufactured and transported in kit-form and operate on a plug-and play basis. Typical hybrid solar power systems include compact or packaged solar micro combined heat and power (CHP or mCHP) or solar micro combined, cooling, heating and power (CCHP, CHPC, mCCHP, or mCHPC) systems used in distributed power generation. These systems are often combined in concentrated solar CSP and CPV smart microgrid configurations for off-grid rural, island or isolated microgrid, minigrid and distributed power renewable energy systems. Solar tracking algorithms are also used in modelling of trigeneration systems using Matlab and Simulink platform as well as in automation and control of renewable energy systems through intelligent parsing, multi-objective, adaptive learning control and control optimization strategies. Solar tracking algorithms also find application in developing solar models for country or location specific solar studies, for example in terms of measuring or analysis of the fluctuations of the solar radiation (i.e. direct and diffuse radiation) in a particular area. Solar DNI, solar irradiance and atmospheric information and models can thus be integrated into a solar map, solar atlas or geographical information systems (GIS). Such models allows for defining local parameters for specific regions that may be valuable in terms of the evaluation of different solar in photovoltaic of CSP systems on simulation and synthesis platforms such as Matlab and Simulink or in linear or multi-objective optimization algorithm platforms such as COMPOSE, EnergyPLAN or DER-CAM. A dual-axis solar tracker and single-axis solar tracker may use a sun tracker program or sun tracker algorithm to position a solar dish, solar panel array, heliostat array, PV panel, solar antenna or infrared solar nantenna. A self-tracking solar concentrator performs automatic solar tracking by computing the solar vector. Solar position algorithms (TwinCAT, SPA, or PSA Algorithms) use an astronomical algorithm to calculate the position of the sun. It uses astronomical software algorithms and equations for solar tracking in the calculation of sun's position in the sky for each location on the earth at any time of day. Like an optical solar telescope, the solar position algorithm pin-points the solar reflector at the sun and locks onto the sun's position to track the sun across the sky as the sun progresses throughout the day. Optical sensors such as photodiodes, light-dependant-resistors (LDR) or photoresistors are used as optical accuracy feedback devices. Lately we also included a section in the book (with links to microprocessor code) on how the PixArt Wii infrared camera in the Wii remote or Wiimote may be used in infrared solar tracking applications. In order to harvest free energy from the sun, some automatic solar positioning systems use an optical means to direct the solar tracking device. These solar tracking strategies use optical tracking techniques, such as a sun sensor means, to direct sun rays onto a silicon or CMOS substrate to determine the X and Y coordinates of the sun's position. In a solar mems sun-sensor device, incident sunlight enters the sun sensor through a small pin-hole in a mask plate where light is exposed to a silicon substrate. In a web-camera or camera image processing sun tracking and sun following means, object tracking software performs multi object tracking or moving object tracking methods. In an solar object tracking technique, image processing software performs mathematical processing to box the outline of the apparent solar disc or sun blob within the captured image frame, while sun-localization is performed with an edge detection algorithm to determine the solar vector coordinates. An automated positioning system help maximize the yields of solar power plants through solar tracking control to harness sun's energy. In such renewable energy systems, the solar panel positioning system uses a sun tracking techniques and a solar angle calculator in positioning PV panels in photovoltaic systems and concentrated photovoltaic CPV systems. Automatic on-axis solar tracking in a PV solar tracking system can be dual-axis sun tracking or single-axis sun solar tracking. It is known that a motorized positioning system in a photovoltaic panel tracker increase energy yield and ensures increased power output, even in a single axis solar tracking configuration. Other applications such as robotic solar tracker or robotic solar tracking system uses robotica with artificial intelligence in the control optimization of energy yield in solar harvesting through a robotic tracking system. Automatic positioning systems in solar tracking designs are also used in other free energy generators, such as concentrated solar thermal power CSP and dish Stirling systems. The sun tracking device in a solar collector in a solar concentrator or solar collector Such a performs on-axis solar tracking, a dual axis solar tracker assists to harness energy from the sun through an optical solar collector, which can be a parabolic mirror, parabolic reflector, Fresnel lens or mirror array/matrix. A parabolic dish or reflector is dynamically steered using a transmission system or solar tracking slew drive mean. In steering the dish to face the sun, the power dish actuator and actuation means in a parabolic dish system optically focusses the sun's energy on the focal point of a parabolic dish or solar concentrating means. A Stirling engine, solar heat pipe, thermosyphin, solar phase change material PCM receiver, or a fibre optic sunlight receiver means is located at the focal point of the solar concentrator. The dish Stirling engine configuration is referred to as a dish Stirling system or Stirling power generation system. Hybrid solar power systems (used in combination with biogas, biofuel, petrol, ethanol, diesel, natural gas or PNG) use a combination of power sources to harness and store solar energy in a storage medium. Any multitude of energy sources can be combined through the use of controllers and the energy stored in batteries, phase change material, thermal heat storage, and in cogeneration form converted to the required power using thermodynamic cycles (organic Rankin, Brayton cycle, micro turbine, Stirling) with an inverter and charge controller. 这本书详细介绍了全自动太阳能跟踪,太阳跟踪系统的出现,太阳能跟踪器和太阳跟踪系统。智能全自动太阳能跟踪器是定向向着太阳的有效载荷设备。这种可编程计算机的太阳能跟踪装置,包括太阳跟踪,太阳能跟踪系统,以及微控制器,微处理器和/或基于PC机的太阳跟踪控制,以定向太阳能反射器,太阳透镜,光电板或其他光学配置朝向太阳的原理。机动空间框架和运动系统,确保运动动力学和采用的驱动技术和传动原理引导光学配置,如曼金,抛物线,圆锥曲线,或卡塞格林式太阳能集热器面向太阳,不断跟随太阳运动的轮廓。 从阳光透过太阳能跟踪器或实用的太阳能跟踪系统利用电力,可再生能源控制的自动化系统需要自动太阳跟踪软件和太阳位置算法来实现控制与自动化架构,电路板和硬件的动态运动控制。上轴太阳跟踪系统,如高度,方位角双轴或多轴太阳跟踪系统使用太阳跟踪算法或光线追踪传感器或软件,以确保通过天空中太阳的通道被跟踪的高精度的自动太阳跟踪器的应用,通过正确的夏至,春分太阳和冬至。一种高精度太阳位置计算器或太阳位置算法是这样的自动太阳能跟踪系统的设计和施工中的重要一步。 В этой книге подробно Автоматическая Solar-Tracking, ВС-Tracking-Systems, Solar-трекеры и ВС Tracker Systems. Интеллектуальный автоматический солнечной слежения является устройством, которое ориентирует полезную нагрузку к солнцу. Такое программируемый компьютер на основе солнечной устройство слежения включает принципы солнечной слежения, солнечных систем слежения, а также микроконтроллер, микропроцессор и / или ПК на базе управления солнечной отслеживания ориентироваться солнечных отражателей, солнечные линзы, фотоэлектрические панели или другие оптические конфигурации к ВС Моторизованные космические кадры и кинематические системы обеспечения динамики движения и использовать приводной техники и готовится принципы, чтобы направить оптические конфигурации, такие как Манжен, параболических, конических или Кассегрена солнечных коллекторов энергии, чтобы лицом к солнцу и следовать за солнцем контур движения непрерывно. В обуздывать силу от солнца через солнечный трекер или практической солнечной системы слежения, системы возобновляемых контроля энергии автоматизации требуют автоматического солнечной отслеживания программного обеспечения и алгоритмов солнечные позиции для достижения динамического контроля движения с архитектуры автоматизации управления, печатных плат и аппаратных средств. На оси системы слежения ВС, таких как высота-азимут двойной оси или многоосевые солнечные системы трекер использовать алгоритм отслеживания солнце или трассировки лучей датчиков или программное обеспечение, чтобы обеспечить прохождение солнца по небу прослеживается с высокой точностью в автоматизированных приложений Солнечная Tracker , прямо через летнего солнцестояния, солнечного равноденствия и зимнего солнцестояния.Высокая точность позиции ВС калькулятор или положение солнца алгоритм это важный шаг в проектировании и строительстве автоматической системой солнечной слежения.
Dreaming is a near-universal human experience, but there is no consensus on why we dream or what dreams should be taken to mean. In this book, Robert Ford Campany investigates what people in late classical and early medieval China thought of dreams. He maps a common dreamscape—an array of ideas about what dreams are and what responses they should provoke—that underlies texts of diverse persuasions and genres over several centuries. These writings include manuals of dream interpretation, scriptural instructions, essays, treatises, poems, recovered manuscripts, histories, and anecdotes of successful dream-based predictions. In these many sources, we find culturally distinctive answers to questions peoples the world over have asked for millennia: What happens when we dream? Do dreams foretell future events? If so, how might their imagistic code be unlocked to yield predictions? Could dreams enable direct communication between the living and the dead, or between humans and nonhuman animals? The Chinese Dreamscape, 300 BCE – 800 CE sheds light on how people in a distant age negotiated these mysteries and brings Chinese notions of dreaming into conversation with studies of dreams in other cultures, ancient and contemporary. Taking stock of how Chinese people wrestled with—and celebrated—the strangeness of dreams, Campany asks us to reflect on how we might reconsider our own notions of dreaming.
Master the many styles of Wing Chun Kung Fu with this expert martial arts guide. With the fame of Bruce Lee, the conditions in Hong Kong, and the hard work and effort of many of his classmates, the Wing Chun of the late master Yip Man became one of the most well-known and popular Chinese martial arts in the world. Although this gave Wing Chun international recognition, it also led to a lot of misconceptions. Due to a lack of authentic information, many mistakenly came to assume that the renowned Yip Man was the sole inheritor of the style and that his Wing Chun was the lone version of the art. In fact, there are several different and distinct systems of Wing Chun. Unfortunately, over the years most of these systems have remained unseen or unreported to all but a few--until now. Profusely illustrated with over 300 historical photographs, Complete Wing Chun: The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Traditions presents seldom seen information on a dozen branches of the Wing Chun art. It offers the reader side-by-side comparison of these arts by outlining each system in terms of Wing Chun history, principles, basics, and training methods: Yip Man Wing Chun Yuen Kay-San Wing Chun Kuen Gu Lao Wing Chun Kuen Nanyang Wing Chun Kuen Pan Nam Wing Chun Kuen Pao Fa Lien Wing Chun Kuen Hung Suen Wing Chun Kuen and more!
The family has long been viewed as both a microcosm of the state and a barometer of social change in China. It is no surprise, therefore, that the dramatic changes experienced by Chinese society over the past century have produced a wide array of new family systems. Where a widely accepted Confucian-based ideology once offered a standard framework for family life, current ideas offer no such uniformity. Ties of affection rather than duty have become prominent in determining what individuals feel they owe to their spouses, parents, children, and others. Chinese millennials, facing a world of opportunities and, at the same time, feeling a sense of heavy obligation, are reshaping patterns of courtship, marriage, and filiality in ways that were not foreseen by their parents nor by the authorities of the Chinese state. Those whose roots are in the countryside but who have left their homes to seek opportunity and adventure in the city face particular pressures as do the children and elders they have left behind. The authors explore this diversity focusing on rural vs. urban differences, regionalism, and ethnic diversity within China. Family Life in China presents new perspectives on what the current changes in this institution imply for a rapidly changing society.
Faced with the challenge of studying EU law, students and other interested parties need guidance and accessible materials. Despite the ground clearing of the Lisbon Treaty, the terrain is still not properly mapped. Edward and Lane's completely rewritten book provides just what's needed. Clear, comprehensible and comprehensive, it will be an important port of call for anyone trying to figure out key aspects of the EU's ever burgeoning legal order.' - Jo Shaw, University of Edinburgh, UK A comprehensively updated and expanded new edition of a classic text, this authoritative volume provides expert analysis on the key issues across all areas of European Union law - including its constitutional, procedural and substantive aspects. Importantly, the book incorporates the Treaty of Lisbon reorientation and immediate post-Lisbon developments. Throughout the book there is extensive reference to primary sources (Treaty, legislation, case law) and to issues of national adaptation which, together, bring a depth of understanding and analysis to this increasingly complex discipline.
The Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus with Chinese Medicine is a textbook and a clinical manual on the Chinese medical treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM) and its many complications. Each facet of this complex condition is discussed in terms of its Western medical definition, epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, current standards of care, complications, and treatment plans. This text outlines goals of therapeutic care, general considerations, diet & exercise, patient education, blood glucose monitoring and much more. This text discusses: * Gestational Diabetes * Diabetic Ketoacidosis * Diabetic Hypertension * Diabetic Hyperlipoproteinemia * Diabetic Retinopathy * Diabetic Neuropathy * Common opportunistic infections in patients with diabetes * Patient adherence and practitioner monitoring * Appendix of Chinese medicinals, and Western pharmaceuticals.
This is a political treatise that deals with the China issue from a completely new perspective. Disparaging as he may sound, from page to page, toward "the old system" and the Communist Party's various wiles, the author demonstrates his mysteriously profound understanding of the Chinese leadership. Few men in North America would have such prescient perception of what is happening in Asia's (and also the world's) most populous country. It is a work of amazing knowledge and brilliance!
Challenging conventional Western wisdom, Marks examines the relationship between economic and environmental changes in the imperial Chinese provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi (a region historically known as Lingnan, 'South of the Mountains') from 1400 to 1850.
Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Third Edition includes Jacaranda's vastly improved eBook on the new learnON platform: an immersive digital learning environment that enables real-time learning through peer-to-peer connections, complete visibility and immediate feedback. The new digital learning platform includes additional teacher resources, such as formal assessments and curriculum grids.
This book illuminates results from a wide-ranging, landmark study of global leaders and their world-class companies that proves that managers must understand, respect, and learn from a variety of national cultures to be successful--at home and abroad. 10 photos.
How the West responds to China's emergence as a great power will go far toward determining the course of world politics in the years ahead. Yet, as Robert Sutter shows in this timely book, U.S. foreign policy in this vital arena remains remarkably unfocused and uninformed. Preoccupied with domestic imperatives and a persistent and intractable debate over China, the U.S. government, media, and public have all but ignored the interests and motivations of China's leaders. The author argues that the course of U.S.-China relations will be determined by Beijing as well as Washington, and a balanced understanding of Chinese leaders' priorities will lead to more informed and effective U.S. policy. Toward that goal, this pragmatic study examines current Chinese concerns and behavior in areas of crucial importance to the United States. Assessing the many economic, social, and political problems that continue to preoccupy China's leaders, Sutter concludes that Chinese internal difficulties and aspirations are so wide-ranging and protracted that China's leaders will remain focused on promoting economic development and reforms and maintaining social-political stability well into the twenty-first century. This analysis sets the stage for more extensive treatment of China's role in world affairs--areas where Chinese and U.S. interests interact most directly. The author contends that a balanced view of common ground and differences will temper the excessive swings seen in recent U.S. China policy and lay the groundwork for a more realistic relationship as we move into a new century.
This book comprehensively discusses the basic principles and working mechanism of all kind of batteries towards clean energy storage devices. In addition, it focuses on the synthesis of various electrode materials with 1D architecture via electrospinning technique. This book will give a clear idea about recent synthetic strategy towards nanofibers and nanocomposites for alkali-ion storage applications. The reader could understand the formation mechanism of nanofibers and their potential application in the future energy storage system.
Red Silk is a history of China’s Yangzi Delta silk industry during the wars, crises, and revolutions of the mid-twentieth century. Based on extensive research in Chinese archives and focused on the 1950s, the book compares two very different groups of silk workers and their experiences in the revolution. Male silk weavers in Shanghai factories enjoyed close ties to the Communist party-state and benefited greatly from socialist policies after 1949. In contrast, workers in silk thread mills, or filatures, were mostly young women who lacked powerful organizations or ties to the revolutionary regime. For many filature workers, working conditions changed little after 1949 and politicized production campaigns added a new burden within the brutal and oppressive factory regime in place since the nineteenth century. Both groups of workers and their employers had to adapt to rapidly changing circumstances. Their actions—protests, petitions, bribery, tax evasion—compelled the party-state to adjust its policies, producing new challenges. The results, though initially positive for many, were ultimately disastrous. By the end of the 1950s, there was widespread conflict and deprivation among silk workers and, despite its impressive recovery under Communist rule, the industry faced a crisis worse than war and revolution.
Thermo-Hydrodynamic Design of Fluidized Bed Combustors: Estimating Metal Wastage is a unique volume that finds that the most sensitive parameters affecting metal wastage are superficial fluidizing velocity, particle diameter, and particle sphericity. Gross consistencies between disparate data sources using different techniques were found when the erosion rates are compared on the same basis using the concept of renormalization. The simplified mechanistic models and correlations, when validated, can be used to renormalize any experimental data so they can be compared on a consistent basis using a master equation.
Can we endorse valuable rights and freedoms—the cherished forms of equality and liberty we might call liberality—without liberalism? This book outlines such a possibility. Humane liberality upholds and deliberates equality, freedom, and justice through the Mencian virtue of humaneness, based in care and compassion. In positing humaneness to be the first virtue of government, Mencius directs us to formulate policies that are responsive to and promote the wellbeing of the people understood in terms of their actual lived and felt experience—their feelings and their flourishing. Rights and freedoms can and should be affirmed in ways that facilitate that flourishing. This pushes against the usual approaches to valuing rights and liberties of both Confucians and liberals, who tend to reason from abstract first principles rather than through care for people and responsiveness to their actual wants and needs. In setting out this vision, Humane Liberality first critically analyzes the broader problems and possibilities of affirming freedom, equality, and pluralism through Confucianism. It then outlines and promotes an underappreciated concrete humanist account of Mencian morality and politics, which has been overshadowed by more metaphysical orthodox interpretations of Mencius. Concrete humanism insists we adjudicate what is right not through eternal abstractions but instead through situated assessment of human emotions. In this way, humaneness offers a unique and uniquely compelling approach to reasoning about rights and liberties, and humane liberality recasts how we understand and practice Confucian values, liberal principles, and the promise and potential of incorporating the two.
This book considers the Tang response to the collapse of the Uighur steppe empire in 840 C.E. and the large number of refugees who fled to China's northern frontier. It examines the workings of late Tang bureaucracy through translations of some seventy relevant Chinese documents.
Born in Venice in the 12th century, Allesandro Da Veneto finds himself storming the gates of Constantinople with the Crusades only to be seriously wounded in the attack and left for dead. Or at least he should have been dead. This diary records Alessandro's departure from plague-ravaged Venice to Spain and Portugal at the time when Iberian provinces were moving toward nationhood.
China is building a New Silk Road that runs through the heartland of the Muslim world, promising it will create integrated economies and stronger ties across Eurasia and Africa. Robert R. Bianchi argues that while China has the financial and technical resources to accomplish its infrastructure goals, it is woefully unprepared to deal with the social and political demands of its partner countries' citizens. China and the Islamic World explores how China's leaders and citizens are learning-through their relationships with Pakistan, Turkey, Indonesia, Iran, Nigeria and Egypt-that they have to respect and adjust to the aspirations of ordinary people throughout the Islamic world, not just cater to the narrow band of government and business elites. Bianchi demonstrates that turbulent countries along the New Silk Road are likely to transform Chinese society at least as much as China changes them. This realization will be deeply unsettling for China's authoritarian rulers, who desperately want to monopolize power domestically. The party and state bosses have responded to challenges with a contradictory blend of flexibility abroad and rigidity at home, compromising with popular demands in one country after another while refusing to negotiate many of the same issues with their own citizens. This book shows how China faces a growing struggle to maintain their double-sided statecraft as it becomes apparent that the New Silk Road is not a one way street.
Algorithmic Trading Methods: Applications using Advanced Statistics, Optimization, and Machine Learning Techniques, Second Edition, is a sequel to The Science of Algorithmic Trading and Portfolio Management. This edition includes new chapters on algorithmic trading, advanced trading analytics, regression analysis, optimization, and advanced statistical methods. Increasing its focus on trading strategies and models, this edition includes new insights into the ever-changing financial environment, pre-trade and post-trade analysis, liquidation cost & risk analysis, and compliance and regulatory reporting requirements. Highlighting new investment techniques, this book includes material to assist in the best execution process, model validation, quality and assurance testing, limit order modeling, and smart order routing analysis. Includes advanced modeling techniques using machine learning, predictive analytics, and neural networks. The text provides readers with a suite of transaction cost analysis functions packaged as a TCA library. These programming tools are accessible via numerous software applications and programming languages. - Provides insight into all necessary components of algorithmic trading including: transaction cost analysis, market impact estimation, risk modeling and optimization, and advanced examination of trading algorithms and corresponding data requirements - Increased coverage of essential mathematics, probability and statistics, machine learning, predictive analytics, and neural networks, and applications to trading and finance - Advanced multiperiod trade schedule optimization and portfolio construction techniques - Techniques to decode broker-dealer and third-party vendor models - Methods to incorporate TCA into proprietary alpha models and portfolio optimizers - TCA library for numerous software applications and programming languages including: MATLAB, Excel Add-In, Python, Java, C/C++, .Net, Hadoop, and as standalone .EXE and .COM applications
Rats, Cats, Rogues, and Heroes reveals China's history and culture through the eyes of ordinary men and women using an interdisciplinary perspective that incorporates history, anthropology, folk studies, and literature to examine the sociocultural and symbolic worlds of gangsters, sorcerers, and prostitutes in late imperial and modern China.
A fascinating look at China now and in the years to come, through the eyes of those at the helm As China continues its rapid ascent, attention is turning to its leaders, who they are, and how they view the country's incredible transformation over the last thirty years. In How China's Leaders Think: The Inside Story of China's Past, Current and Future Leaders, Revised, bestselling author Lawrence Kuhn goes directly to the source, talking with members of China's ruling party and examining recently declassified Party material to provide readers with an intimate look at China's leaders and leadership structure, visionary principles, and convulsive past, and tracing the nation's reform efforts. Focusing on President Hu Jintao's philosophies and policies, the book looks to the next generation of China's leaders to ask the questions on everyone's lips. Who are China's future leaders? How do they view China's place in the world? Confronting China's leaders head on, Kuhn asks about the county's many problem, from economic imbalances to unsustainable development, to find out if there's a road map for change. Presenting the thoughts of key Chinese leaders on everything from media, military, banking, and healthcare to film, the Internet, science and technology, and much more, the book paints an intimate, candid portrayal of how China's leaders really think. Presents a fascinating insight into how China's leaders think about their country and where it's headed Asks the tough questions about China's need for reform Pulls together information from over 100 personal interviews as well as recently declassified Party documents Taking readers closer to Party officials than ever before, How China's Leaders Think documents China's thirty-year struggle toward economic and social reform, and what's to come.
Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology provides a complete analysis of the tools and methods used in sport and exercise psychology research. Each chapter of this accessible text presents key measurement variables and concepts, including their definitions; an evaluation of the measurement constructs and tools available; and an explanation of any controversies in each topic. The text includes access to an online resource that presents 14 measurement instruments in their entirety. This resource also contains additional web links to many other measurement instruments. Drawing on their experience as leading researchers in the field, editors Tenenbaum, Eklund, and Kamata have selected a team of recognized scholars to bring both breadth and depth to this essential resource. By thoroughly examining each measurement tool, Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology assists readers in determining strengths and limitations of each tool and discovering which tools are best suited to their research projects. Readers will also gain critical knowledge to expand the field by recognizing opportunities for new methods of measurement and evaluation. The text begins with a historical review of measurement in sport and exercise psychology followed by a comprehensive description of theories and measurement issues. It provides detailed information regarding ethical and cultural issues inherent in the selection of specific testing protocols as well as issues in interpreting meta-analysis. This is followed by discussion of the commonly used constructs and inventories in three areas: cognition, perception, and motivation measurement; emotion (affect) and coping measurement; and social and behavioral measurement. Recommendations for researchers and practitioners included at the end of each chapter provide starting points for considering ways to incorporate chapter content into research projects and professional practice. Tables located at the end of each chapter summarize key information for quick reference and provide online sources, when available, so that readers can access each measurement tool. Original source information is provided for those tools not available online. Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology assists readers in evaluating the effectiveness of specific measurement tools. As the most complete and up-to-date directory of tools and inventories in the field of sport and exercise, this text offers a thorough explanation of considerations, controversies, recommendations, and locations for accessing these measurement tools.
The fascinating story of the Chinese presence in and influence on this country - our intertwined history from colonial times to today. Chinese 'presence' in Australia extends from well before the time of Captain Cook - trading with northern Australia long before Europeans came here - right through to the present day, with Chinese activities ranging from being the main customer for our iron ore, to their very extensive intelligence operations here. Robert Macklin, bestselling and critically acclaimed author of HAMILTON HUME and DARK PARADISE, has traced a new history of the two nations. Macklin's engrossing narrative reaches from pre-colonial times, to John Macarthur's 'coolie' shepherds, the only Chinese bushranger, Sam Pu, and the multiple atrocities committed against the Chinese in the gold rush; through to the 20th century, where the two Australians - 'Morrison of Peking' and William Donald - played a significant role in the downfall of the last Chinese emperor and the creation of the first republic, before World War II and decades of Cold War brinkmanship; to our current economic bonds and Australia's role in the dangerous geopolitics of the South China Sea. DRAGON AND KANGAROO is an absorbing account of a vastly underestimated part of Australia's story: this is our shared history, from an immensely important - and entirely new - angle. 'Robert Macklin calls Hamilton Hume "our greatest explorer", and now that I've read this enthralling but at times shocking story, I totally agree.' ***** GOOD READING on Robert Macklin's HAMILTON HUME
The most comprehensive and authoritative dictionary of Buddhism ever produced in English With more than 5,000 entries totaling over a million words, this is the most comprehensive and authoritative dictionary of Buddhism ever produced in English. It is also the first to cover terms from all of the canonical Buddhist languages and traditions: Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Unlike reference works that focus on a single Buddhist language or school, The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism bridges the major Buddhist traditions to provide encyclopedic coverage of the most important terms, concepts, texts, authors, deities, schools, monasteries, and geographical sites from across the history of Buddhism. The main entries offer both a brief definition and a substantial short essay on the broader meaning and significance of the term covered. Extensive cross-references allow readers to find related terms and concepts. An appendix of Buddhist lists (for example, the four noble truths and the thirty-two marks of the Buddha), a timeline, six maps, and two diagrams are also included. Written and edited by two of today's most eminent scholars of Buddhism, and more than a decade in the making, this landmark work is an essential reference for every student, scholar, or practitioner of Buddhism and for anyone else interested in Asian religion, history, or philosophy. The most comprehensive dictionary of Buddhism ever produced in English More than 5,000 entries totaling over a million words The first dictionary to cover terms from all of the canonical Buddhist languages and traditions—Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean Detailed entries on the most important terms, concepts, texts, authors, deities, schools, monasteries, and geographical sites in the history of Buddhism Cross-references and appendixes that allow readers to find related terms and look up equivalent terms in multiple Buddhist languages Includes a list of Buddhist lists, a timeline, and maps Also contains selected terms and names in Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese, Lao, Khmer, Sinhalese, Newar, and Mongolian
A veteran counterintelligence agent presents a revealing chronicle of his State Department investigations into intelligence leaks and spying on US soil. On October 7th, 1974, Robert D. Booth swore an oath to support and uphold the United States Constitution as a special agent of the State Department’s Office of Security. As a member of the Special Investigations Branch, he investigated numerous information leaks, losses of classified documents, and instances of espionage. Now, in State Department Counterintelligence, Booth reveals some of the most egregious leaks, spies, and lies that have adversely affected national security over his decades-long career. Booth tells the story of his pivotal role in three major counterespionage assignments as well as numerous investigations into unauthorized disclosures—including the unmasking of Fidel Castro’s most damaging US citizen spy. With the narrative style of a political thriller, Booth brings readers inside the real world of counterintelligence.
This book considers Chinese foreign policy and China's future role in world affairs in the context of the country's recent past. Robert Sutter shows that although it appears to be in U.S. interests for post-Mao leaders to continue moving toward international norms, a post-Deng leadership backed by growing economic and military power and reflecting profound changes in China's economy and society could move in markedly different directions. Most foreign powers appear willing to accommodate China, avoiding actions that could prompt a sharp shift in Chinese foreign policy, but Sutter argues that current U.S. policy intrudes on so many issues that are particularly sensitive for Beijing and for China's future that it represents perhaps the most critical variable determining how China will position itself in world affairs. Concluding that there is no guarantee the United States will use this influence wisely, Sutter examines the uncertainty and unpredictability of U.S. foreign policy in the post-Cold War environment that work against the creation of an effective U.S. policy toward China.
A collection of authoritative papers on key issues for China's relations with other countries in the region in terms of trade, defence, regional development, energy security, and social, political and economic development.
This work presents six case-studies of objects from different periods and regions of antiquity that are labelled by variations of the name Mithra, including the Roman Mithras, Persian Mihr, and Bactrian Miiro. Each chapter places each object in its original context, before questioning its role in religious ritual, tradition, and belief
The Fun with Fonnix program is ideal for educators and parents seeking improved reading proficiency for their students and children, and for institutions of higher learning committed to state-of-the-art teacher preparation. Fun with Fonnix is a new, remarkably effective method for teaching reading. Most students start reading within a few minutes, even students who repeatedly failed to read with conventional teaching techniques. Fun with Fonnix is a comprehensive program containing a complete introductory course in English phonetics, instruction in the theory and applications of context fonnix, and programmed lesson sets with instructions for teaching reading. No previous teaching experience or professional training is required. Fun with Fonnix is presented in four volumes - the Teacher's Manual and three volumes of reading worksheets. Students can enter the program at any level of reading proficiency from prekindergarten thru fifth grade.
The little-examined genre of legal case narratives is represented in this fascinating volume, the first collection translated into English of criminal cases - most involving homicide - from late imperial China. These true stories of crimes of passion, family conflict, neighborhood feuds, gang violence, and sedition are a treasure trove of information about social relations and legal procedure. Each narrative describes circumstances leading up to a crime and its discovery, the appearance of the crime scene and the body, the apparent cause of death, speculation about motives and premeditation, and whether self-defense was involved. Detailed testimony is included from the accused and from witnesses, family members, and neighbors, as well as summaries and opinions from local magistrates, their coroners, and other officials higher up the chain of judicial review. Officials explain which law in the Qing dynasty legal code was violated, which corresponding punishment was appropriate, and whether the sentence was eligible for reduction. These records began as reports from magistrates on homicide cases within their jurisdiction that were required by law to be tried first at the county level, then reviewed by judicial officials at the prefectural, provincial, and national levels, with each administrator adding his own observations to the file. Each case was decided finally in Beijing, in the name of the emperor if not by the monarch himself, before sentences could be carried out and the records permanently filed. All of the cases translated here are from the Qing imperial copies, most of which are now housed in the First Historical Archives, Beijing.
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