This volume is a continuation of Unbiased Estimators and Their Applications, Vol. I: Univariate Case. It contains problems of parametric point estimation for multivariate probability distributions emphasizing problems of unbiased estimation. The volume consists of four chapters dealing, respectively, with some basic properties of multivariate continuous and discrete distributions, the general theory of point estimation in multivariate case, techniques for constructing unbiased estimators and applications of unbiased estimation theory in the multivariate case. These chapters contain numerous examples, many applications and are followed by a comprehensive Appendix which classifies and lists, in the form of tables, all known results relating to unbiased estimators of parameter functions for multivariate distributions. Audience: This volume will serve as a handbook on point unbiased estimation for researchers whose work involves statistics. It can also be recommended as a supplementary text for undergraduate and graduate students.
Hedge funds are collective investment vehicles, often organized as private partnerships and resident offshore for tax and regulatory purposes. Their legal status places few restrictions on their portfolios and transactions, leaving their managers free to use short sales, derivative securities, and leverage to raise returns and cushion risk. This paper considers the role of hedge funds in financial market dynamics, with particular reference to the Asian crisis.
Pacific island countries face unique challenges to realizing their growth potential and raising living standards. This book discusses ongoing challenges facing Pacific island countries and policy options to address them. Regional cooperation and solutions tailored to their unique challenges, as well as further integration with the Asia and Pacific region will each play a role. With concerted efforts, Pacific island countries can boost potential growth, increase resilience, and improve the welfare of their citizens.
Aquatic ecosystem and aquatic plant diversity holds a key position in maintaining the floristic diversity of India - one of the 12 megabiodiversity centres of the world. It provides the material basis for the sustenance of thousands of floral and faunal aquatic life forms. This book ``Wetland Phytodiversity : A Complete Guide to Indian Helobieae'' deals with 75 plant species belonging to the aquatic families of angiosperms under the group Helobieae. Distribution of the taxa, their life forms, floral as well as pollination biology, phenology, chromosome numbers, etc. have been dealt with proper care towards better understanding of the affinities, intra - and interfamilial relationships of the taxa. Chapters on phytogeography, pollen morphology, fossil records etc. will be very much helpful for future workers in tracing origin and segregation of this important aquatic group of angiosperms. Apart from the text 20 maps/figures, 66 illustrations, 24 plates have been provided in the book.
This paper integrates a two-period overlapping generations model with a standard two-sector Hecksher-Ohlin trade model and analyzes the impact of uncertainty on domestic investment in the exportable and importable sectors, the political economy linkages between trade and financial liberalization, and the implications for sequencing. Under certain assumptions financial liberalization leads to a movement of resources in the opposite direction to that implied by trade liberalization, thus defeating one of the objectives of tariff reform. When political economy linkages are taken into account, however, the indirect effects of financial liberalization may offset the direct effects and encourage a movement of resources in the desired direction.
Education is the cornerstone of personal and societal development, shaping individuals' lives and influencing the future of communities and nations. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, understanding the foundational elements of education becomes increasingly essential. Basics in Education aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental concepts and principles that underpin effective educational practice. This book is designed for educators, students, and anyone with an interest in the educational field. It covers a wide range of topics, including the meaning of knowledge, various ways of knowing, the process of knowledge construction, and the principles of curriculum development. Each chapter delves into key aspects of education, offering insights into how knowledge is organized, constructed, and applied within educational settings. The journey of writing this book has been both challenging and rewarding. It involved extensive research, thoughtful reflection, and valuable discussions with experts in the field. The aim has been to create a resource that not only imparts knowledge but also inspires educators to reflect on their practices and engage with educational theories critically. The exploration of knowledge organization within schools, the principles guiding curriculum formulation, and the process of developing syllabi and textbooks are presented with the intent to foster a deeper understanding of educational practices. By examining these areas, the book seeks to equip readers with the tools and insights needed to enhance their educational approaches and contribute meaningfully to the field.
In the years following the global financial crisis, many low-income countries experienced rapid recovery and strong economic growth. However, many are now facing enormous difficulties because of rapidly rising food and fuel prices, with the threat of millions of people being pushed into poverty around the globe. The risk of continued food price volatility is a systemic challenge, and a failure in one country has been shown to have a profound impact on entire regions. This volume addresses the challenges of commodity price volatility for low-income countries and explores some macroeconomic policy options for responding to commodity price shocks. The book then looks at inclusive growth policies to address inequality in commodity-exporting countries, particularly natural resource rich countries. Perspectives from the Middle East and North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, emerging Asia, and Mexico are presented and, finally, the role of the international donor community is examined. This volume is a must read for policymakers everywhere, from those in advanced, donor countries to those in countries with the poorest and most vulnerable populations.
Welcome to "Pharmacotherapeutics-I: Foundations of Modern Medication Management." This book is a comprehensive guide to the fundamental principles and practices of pharmacotherapy, designed to provide students, healthcare professionals, and anyone interested in the field of medicine with a solid foundation in medication management. Pharmacotherapy is a dynamic and ever-evolving field that plays a pivotal role in patient care and the healthcare industry as a whole. This book is intended to serve as a reliable resource for understanding the science and art of medication therapy, from drug discovery and development to the safe and effective use of medications in diverse patient populations. In "Pharmacotherapeutics-I," we cover a wide range of topics, including the cardiovascular system, Digestive system, Haematological Diseases, drug classes, adverse effects, and evidence-based medication management. We emphasize the importance of personalized patient care, highlighting the essential connection between clinical knowledge and practical application.
We examine the impact of a large-scale microcredit expansion program on financial access and the transition of previously unbanked borrowers to commercial banks. Using administrative micro-data covering the universe of loans to individuals from a developing country, we show that the program significantly increased access to credit, particularly in less developed areas. This effect is driven by the newly set-up credit cooperatives (U-SACCOs), which grant loans to previously unbanked individuals. A sizable share of first-time borrowers who need a second loan switch to commercial banks, which cream-skim low-risk borrowers and grant them larger, cheaper, and longer-term loans. These borrowers are not riskier than similar individuals already at commercial banks and only initially receive smaller loans. Our results suggest that the microfinance sector, together with a well-functioning credit reference bureau, help mitigate information frictions in credit markets.
This book comprising of thirty-two parts, is very interesting and could serve as a guide for young teachers. It can also be an effective tool for policy makers. The author, with his wide teaching experience, is confident that by giving autonomy to students the restricting structures in the system can be removed entirely. He presents his personal experiences as a Teacher and a chief administrator and applies practical wisdom to critical issues that administrative leaders face. The arguments and insights presented in this book are thought-provoking, like-learner-focused and they discuss teaching kindness through service to the society. Kids don't learn from people they don't like! Kids do what we do, not what we say. The author gives valuable suggestions to enhance the teaching and learning experience – inspiring out-of-the-box thinking, encouraging the creative ability of students, relevance of social network, creating research skills even among middle-school students in the classrooms, importance of physical education in schools, significance of morning assembly and so on.
We study the link between the probability of default implied by Credit Default Swaps (CDS) spreads and the final prices of the defaulted bonds as established at the CDS settlement auctions. We observe that the post-default recovery rates at the observed spreads imply markets were often “surprised” by the credit event. We find that the prices of the bonds that are deliverable at the auctions imply probabilities of default that are systematically different than the default probabilities estimated prior to the event of default using standard methodologies. We discuss the implications for CDS pricing models. We analyze the discrepancy between the actual and theoretical CDS spreads and we find it is significantly associated both to the CDS market microstructure at the time of the settlement auction and to the general macroeconomic background. We discuss the potential for strategic bidding behavior at the CDS settlement auctions.
Handbook of Palliative Radiation Therapy is the first practical guide to palliative care in radiation oncology. The editors have assembled an international team of leading radiation oncologists to write this state-of-the-art volume on planning and administering single-fractionated, hypofractionated, and conventional radiation therapy for end-of-life cancer care. The handbook begins with several chapters on the background and efficacy of palliative radiation therapy, along with crucial information on patient selection and assessment of life expectancy. Following these introductory chapters, the bulk of the book contains chapters on site-specific malignancies, containing comprehensive literature reviews, treatment plans, toxicity information, and symptom management. More than 20 color figures enhance the chapter text and illustrate best practices. Written for radiation oncologists, physicists, and other radiation therapy team members, this indispensable text explains how short course regimens can be used to provide better quality care, increase quality of life and convenience, and relieve pain and suffering for advanced stage and end-of-life cancer patients. Key Features: Chapters contain self-assessment questions, clinical cases, clinical pearls, and other elements to bring out key points in the text Discusses strategies for delivering radiation to patients with significant symptoms, such as bleeding, dysphagia, airway obstruction, and other painful and debilitating side effects Includes reviews of tools for assessing life expectancy including Recursive Partitioning Analysis, the TEACHH tool, and other predictive models such as Number of Risk Factors score Explains appropriate considerations when combining palliative radiation therapy with analgesics
The authors of this book share decades of geriatric perioperative nursing care experience with readers in a thorough, systematic manner....[This book] would be an excellent addition to the library of any health care professional, especially a perioperative nurse, who provides care to older adults."--AORN Journal, the official publication of the Association of Perioperative Registered Nurses "This is a solid, well thought out book. The text has a clarity and focus which enhances understanding of the topics presented. It is particularly notable for crisp reading and uncomplicated, meaningful illustrations. Kudos to the authors for presenting such a medically solid book without losing the art of nursing care or the vision of a well tended patient."--Nursing News This timely volume introduces gerioperative care, a new model of surgical care for the elderly designed to improve surgical outcomes and prevent complications through a focus on communication and relationship-centered care. It is the only book to specifically address the care of older adults undergoing surgery, providing practitioners with critical, practical, and theoretical information from the initial decision to have surgery through the first follow-up visit post-discharge. The text includes the anatomy and physiology of aging, preoperative care, intraoperative and post-anesthesia care, postoperative care, returning home, risk appraisal, education, prevention, early intervention, multidisciplinary team collaboration, and effective communication across all systems of care. Gerioperative Nursing Care is an essential resource for students and practitioners of surgical, critical/acute care, and geriatric nursing, along with clinical and case managers. The tools presented help to sustain and enhance quality nursing care for older adults considering surgery, undergoing surgery, and during post-surgery visits. Key Features Presents a comprehensive new gerioperative care model for older adults undergoing surgery Follows patient from primary to follow up care, including hospital care, ambulatory care, emergency and elective surgery, and perioperative care Applies primary, secondary, and tertiary care concepts to surgery Presents innovative focus on case management, with new care guidelines Provides new applications in preoperative training, family coaching, and post-operative cognitive dysfunction prevention Describes how to make quality improvements in current surgical care practices Identifies and discusses major health problems of older adults through EBP Includes case studies with discussion questions
Many emerging market and developing economies face a difficult trade-off between economic support and fiscal sustainability. Market-oriented structural reforms ease this trade-off by promoting economic growth and strengthening public finances. The empirical analysis in this note, based on 62 EMDEs over 1973-2014, shows that reforms are associated with sizeable and long-lasting reductions in the debt-to-GDP ratio mainly through higher fiscal revenues and lower borrowing costs. These effects are larger in countries with greater tax efficiency, lower informality, and higher initial debt. Moreover, a model-based analysis elaborates on how such fiscal gains can be enhanced when revenue windfalls associated with reforms are saved or channeled through higher public investment.
Evidence-Based Practice of Critical Care, 2nd Edition, presents objective data and expert guidance on managing critically ill patients in unique question-based chapters that focus on best practices. Now thoroughly updated by Drs. Clifford S. Deutschman, Patrick J. Neligan, and nearly 200 critical-care experts, this highly regarded title remains the only book of its kind that provides a comprehensive framework for translating evidence into practice, making it a valuable resource for both residents and practitioners. Tap into the expertise of nearly 200 critical-care experts who discuss the wide variety of clinical options in critical care, examine the relevant research, and provide recommendations based on a thorough analysis of available evidence. Think through each question in a logical, efficient manner, using a practical, consistent approach to available management options and guidelines. Find the information you need quickly with tables that summarize the available literature and recommended clinical approaches. Navigate a full range of challenges from routine care to complicated and special situations. Stay up to date with new issues and controversies such as the redefinition of sepsis . changing approaches to fluid administration . immune suppression in sepsis . monitoring the microcirculation . the long-term sequelae of critical illness . minimizing ventilator associated lung injury . the benefits of evidence-based medicine management guidelines . rapid response teams . and more. Benefit from all-new sections covering persistent critical illness and the role of advanced practice nurses and physician assistants in the ICU.
Selected Topics in Superconductivity, reflects the high level of activity in the discovery of high-Tc superconductivity. Out of the 19 articles that it has, a fairly good number of them discuss several important and fundamental aspects of the high-Tc superconductivity. Some of the issues related to the phenomenon of superconductivity in general are discussed in a few of the manuscripts. The remaining articles deal with superconductivity in unconventional and highly correlated metals
All types of recessions, on average, not just those associated with financial and political crises (as in Cerra and Saxena, AER 2008), lead to permanent output losses. These findings have far-reaching conceptual and policy implications. A new paradigm of the business cycle needs to account for shifts in trend output and the puzzling inconsistency of output dynamics with other cyclical components of production. The ‘output gap’ can be ill-conceived, poorly measured, and inconsistent over time. Persistent losses require more buffers and crisis-avoidance policies, affecting tradeoffs in prudential, macroeconomic, and reserve management policies. The frequency and depth of crises are key determinants of long-term growth and drive a new stylized model of economic development.
In-depth, comprehensive and up-to-date information on the powerful finite strip method of analysis of bridges. It is in three parts. The first introduces the method and gives the necessary background. The second explains the evolution of the method and the third part provides detailed information on the application of the method to highway bridges.
A deep dive into the underlying cellular cause of chronic fatigue, burnout, and brain fog, with a framework for restoring cognitive function, alertness, and an abundance of energy. Chronic fatigue, burnout, brain fog—no matter what we call it, our constant feeling of being drained affects all that we hold dear. There are very real culprits of our fatigue, and they don’t lie in our preconceived notions of caffeine intake or adrenal fatigue, nor does the replenishment of our energy lie in overhauling our lifestyle in time-consuming and unrealistic ways. Instead, the core underlying cause lies in our cells, specifically our mitochondrial deficiency, and the solution can be found in simple, straightforward, nutritional strategies that address our body’s biology. Ari Whitten, functional health practitioner and creator of The Energy Blueprint program, takes you on a deep dive of our cellular energy centers, illuminating the clear nutritional methodologies and specific foods, supplements, and compounds you can use to: · Get better sleep · Lower your blood pressure · Help stabilize your blood sugar levels · Lose excess weight · Improve memory and concentration · Increase mental well-being Get your body out of defense mode and into a state of optimal performance to live at the peak of your energy, brain function, mood, and health.
After several decades of increasing global economic integration, the world is facing the risk of policy-driven geoeconomic fragmentation (GEF). This note explores the ramifications. It identifies multiple channels through which the benefits of globalization were earlier transmitted, and along which, conversely, the costs of GEF are likely to fall, including trade, migration, capital flows, technology diffusion and the provision of global public goods. It explores the consequences of GEF for the international monetary system and the global financial safety net. Finally, it suggests a pragmatic path forward for preserving the benefits of global integration and multilateralism
This paper investigates the link between macroeconomic performance and the change in the poverty rate among 47 episodes of growth and 52 episodes of economic downturn in developing and transition economies. We show that, on average, (i) the greater the inequality, the lower the elasticity of poverty to growth, and the higher the mean income, the higher the elasticity; (ii) the country-specific elasticity is identical for episodes of economic growth and for episodes of economic downturn; and (iii) higher growth does not bring diminishing returns to poverty reduction. Moreover, we show that very high inflation is associated with a higher elasticity of the poverty rate to economic downturn, but at lower inflation, there is no relationship between inflation and the elasticity of the poverty rate to growth or recession. Trade openness and changes in the terms of trade explain part of the elasticity of the poverty rate to economic downturn.
Sweden has long been viewed as epitomizing a particular approach to economic and social policy. To its advocates, the Swedish welfare state builds on a strong social consensus favoring extensive state intervention to ensure a high quality of life for all Swedes. To its critics, the Swedish system is marked by excessive government intervention and attendant inefficiencies. These contrasting views are captured in imagery used by Prime Minister Göran Persson: "Think of a bumblebee. With its overly heavy body and little wings, supposedly it should not be able to fly--but it does." The Swedish welfare state is the bumblebee that has managed to fly. This book draws on many years of IMF surveillance and policy advice to explain how it has done so, to assess the challenges that the Swedish model faces in the new century, to propose a strategy for dealing with those challenges, and to draw lessons for the many other countries that face similar challenges from globalization and demographics.
This paper creates an index of capital controls to analyze the determinants of capital flows to Brazil, accounting for the endogeneity of capital controls by considering a government that sets controls in response to capital flows. It finds that the government reacts strongly to capital flows by increasing controls on inflows during booms and relaxing them in moments of distress. The paper estimates a vector autoregression with capital flows, controls, and interest differentials. It shows that controls have been temporarily effective in altering levels and composition of capital flows but have had no sustained effects in the long run.
Building public support for climate mitigation is a key prerequisite to making meaningful strides toward decarbonization and achieving net-zero emissions. Using nationally representative, individual-level surveys for 28 countries, this paper identifies the current levels and drivers of support for climate mitigation policies. Controlling for individual characteristics, we find that pre-existing beliefs about policy efficacy, perceived costs and co-benefits (e.g., cleaner air), and the degree of policy progressivity are important drivers of support for carbon pricing policies. The knowledge gap about climate mitigation policies can be large, but randomized information experiments show that support increases (decreases) after individuals are introduced to new information on the benefits (potential costs) of such policies.
Widespread shortages in key inputs are common in mixed economies of developing countries. These shortages appear to occur at the same time that relatively high rates of capacity underutilization in manufacturing industries are observed. This paper develops a simple model which explains the existence of excess capacity when there are quantitative restrictions on key inputs. This model is tested using data for manufacturing industries in India, and the results indicate that shortages in domestic rather than imported inputs imposed binding constraints on capacity utilization rates.
The discovery of fullerenes (also known as buckyballs) has generated tremendous excitement and opened up a new field of carbon chemistry. As the first book available on this topic, this volume will be a landmark reference in the field. Because buckyballs are essentially closed hollow cages made up of carbon atoms, they can be manipulated in a variety of ways to yield never-before-seen materials. The balls can, for instance, be doped with atoms or pulled out into tubules and filled with lead to provide properties of high-temperature superconductivity. Researchers can now create their own buckyballs in a process that is almost as simple as making soot, making this research as inexpensive as it is exotic (which has doubtless contributed to its popularity). Researchers anticipate that fullerenes will offer boundless opportunities in the development of new products, drugs and materials.Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes introduces materials scientists, chemists, and solid state physicists to the field of fullerenes, and discusses the unique properties and applications. both current and future, of all classes of fullerenes.Key Features* First comprehensive resource on fullerenes and their applications* Provides an introduction to the topic* Presents an extensive discussion of current and future applications of Fullerenes* Covers all classes of fullerenes
We study the transmission of financial sector shocks across borders through international bank connections. For this purpose, we use data on long-term interbank loans among more than 6,000 banks during 1997-2012 to construct a yearly global network of interbank exposures. We estimate the effect of direct (first-degree) and indirect (second-degree) exposures to countries experiencing systemic banking crises on bank profitability and loan supply. We find that direct exposures to crisis countries squeeze banks' profit margins, thereby reducing their returns. Indirect exposures to crisis countries enhance this effect, while indirect exposures to non-crisis countries mitigate it. Furthermore, crisis exposures have real effects in that they reduce banks' supply of domestic and cross-border loans. Our results, based on a large global sample, support the notion that interconnected financial systems facilitate shock transmission.
This innovative text for Neonatal Nurses and NICU clinicians introduces new, evidence-based care protocols proven to mitigate or reduce the profound morbidities and subsequent developmental challenges that afflict newborns in the NICU. The book reframes the concept of developmentally supportive care to trauma-informed, age-appropriate care of the hospitalized premature infant. Aimed at transforming NICU practice, the book links developmental care to quality standards and Joint Commission requirements. The text is also unique in its provision of engaging online learning activities that facilitate the translation of content into clinical practice, whereby the user can also earn CEUs. The text highlights the ways in which Nightingale's tenets of nursing and Watson's theory of human caring science resonate with the its subject matter and are applied in the NICU. It includes examples of favorable outcomes associated with the protocols described in this book from practitioners in the U.S. and overseas. Additionally, the text aligns with NANN guidelines for Age Appropriate Care of the Premature and Hospitalized Infant. This book will provide the neonatal nurse/APN with best available, evidence-based caring strategies to consistently and reliably manage the trauma associated with the NICU experience and mitigate both short-term and long-term complications associated with this developmental trauma. Key Features: Introduces cutting-edge, evidence-based care protocols proven to reduce the profound morbidities and developmental challenges of premature infants Reframes the concept of developmentally supportive care to trauma-informed, age-appropriate care Meets Joint Commission requirements for age-appropriate staff education Includes examples from researchers and practitioners worldwide Presents innovative online learning activities to facilitate translation of content to clinical practice
HAPPINESS ECONOMICS deals with the concept of happiness in economics. Most economists until recently were very suspicious about happiness economics and the common opinion was that happiness is not empirically measurable. Actually there is now a growing body of serious economists who are willing, either reluctantly or wholeheartedly, to include happiness economics as a part of economic science. For a better understanding of happiness economics, the authors examine the viewpoint of mainstream economics in the introduction. Section 2 starts by considering the methods of analysis in happiness economics. Section 3 considers life satisfaction (or happiness), section 4 considers domain satisfactions, section 5 returns to the ordinality-cardinality question, and Section 6 provides the link between domain satisfactions and satisfaction with life as a whole. Section 7 considers the work of the Leyden school that may be seen as a forerunner of modern happiness economics. Section 8 considers the effect of the individual's reference group on her or his happiness. Section 9 examines the influence of past events and the anticipated future on present life satisfaction. Section 10 deals with the effect of climate and more generally of the external environment on satisfaction. Section 11 considers the effect of inequality on individual happiness and considers happiness inequality per se. Section 12 considers how the vignette approach, so popular in marketing, can be applied in happiness economics. Section 13 delineates the significance of happiness economics for normative economics. And Section 14 draws some conclusions and discusses the relevance of the new findings for economic science and the social sciences in general.
This paper analyzes developments in the structure of trade in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) during the transition decade, and finds that it changed less than in other transition economies. Trade openness of the CIS increased between 1993 and 1997, but has fallen to a lower-level plateau since then owing to regional and country-specific factors. These include slower progress in transition, geographic aspects, restrictions on trade, governance and corruption problems, weak infrastructure, lack of regional cooperation, and political conflicts. Regression results show that trade openness of the CIS countries would likely increase substantially if market-oriented reforms were pursued more vigorously.
This paper examines the state of financial development in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region as well as potential growth and stability implications from further development. The analysis suggests that access to financial institutions has expanded notably in the past decade, and the region compares favorably with other emerging market regions on this dimension. The region, however, continues to lag behind peers on broader financial development, especially with respect to markets, though there is substantial heterogeneity across countries. Financial systems in many LAC countries are also underdeveloped relative to their macroeconomic fundamentals. Further financial development could convey net benefits to the region, provided there is adequate regulatory oversight to prevent excesses.
These issues represent a compendium of review papers covering almost every aspect of the physics of clusters and nanophase materials. Papers have been written by leading international experts in the field. The purpose of this compendium has been to illustrate, in more detail than is possible in a conference paper, the fundamental or underlying principles.
This book will bring together all recent and updated information on RCT in pulses and pulse based cropping system which will be of immense use to researchers, extension personnel, students, research scholars across the nation.
This paper offers Algeria's recent experience with macroeconomic stabilization and systemic transformation from a centrally planned to a market economy. The analyses focuses on the period since 1994 when Algeria embarked on a comprehensive reform program that has benefitted from IMF support, first through a one-year Stand-by Arrangement, and from May 1995, through a three-year arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility. To better understand this experience, this paper provides some background information on Algeria's political history and economic developments during the period preceding the Stand-By arrangement.
Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have made important strides in promoting financial inclusion of firms and households. However, while the region is broadly at par with its peers on financial inclusion of firms, household inclusion lags behind. Nonetheless, there is substantial heterogeneity across LAC countries. Reducing borrowing costs and strengthening further the regulatory environment, while taking steps to protect efficiency and stability of the financial system, could help close financial inclusion gaps. Reducing financial participation and monitoring costs and relaxing collateral constraints will help spur growth and reduce inequality though trade-offs are likely, as illustrated in the case of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Peru.
Dislocations are lines of irregularity in the structure of a solid analogous to the bumps in a badly laid carpet. Like these bumps, they can be easily moved, and they provide the most important mechanism by which the solid can be deformed. They also have a strong influence on crystal growth and on the electronic properties of semiconductors.
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