The adrenal glands comprise two distinct endocrine organs: the inner medulla and the outer cortex. The inner medulla is made up of neuroectodermal cells derived from the neural crest and produces the catecholamine hormones norepinephrine and epinephrine, which are crucial for stress responses. The outer cortex is derived from the mesoderm and synthesizes steroid hormones that are essential to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance, modulate intermediary metabolism and regulate inflammatory processes. Steroidogenesis in the adrenal cortex is mainly regulated by trophic hormones controlled by the hypothalamus–pituitary endocrine axes. Adrenal organogenesis and development of adult steroidogenesis are carefully orchestrated by action of a number of gene products. Although the pattern of development differs somewhat in diverse primates, the same genes appear to regulate the basic developmental program in all mammalian species. Most basic laboratory research is done in mice, in which prenatal development occurs within a compressed period of approximately 19 days and in which adrenals at birth are considerably less developed than in their human counterparts. This chapter describes the contributions of genes responsible for the proper development of the adrenal cortex, as well as how an understanding of adrenal gland disease provides novel fundamental insights into the regulation of adrenal development and steroidogenesis.
On average people spend one third of their life sleeping. An understanding of the physiology and pathophysiological changes that take place during this time is, therefore, essential to the medical care of patients. Sleep disorders can arise from a variety of causes including respiratory, psychiatric and neurological conditions, as well as pain and lifestyle changes. Consequently, their understanding is pertinent to a wide range of clinicians who require an overview of their diagnosis and treatment. Written by one of the UK's leading authorities on sleep medicine, Sleep Medicine: A Guide to Sleep and its Disorders presents a practical guide to the clinical problems related to sleep disorders. An experienced author, John Shneerson writes concisely and presents the information in a most accessible way. The text is clearly organised and full use has been made of tables and line diagrams. Whilst the body of the text is clinical in approach, the scientific basis of sleep and sleep medicine and the technical aspects of sleep investigations are explained fully. The book is divided into three sections. The first group of chapters considers the fundamentals of sleep, the effects of drugs on sleep and how to assess sleep complaints. The main body of the book consists of chapters on individual sleep disorders. Each of these has a structured approach, outlining both assessment and treatment. Insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, awareness during sleep and behavioural abnormalities are covered. The final chapters deal with the important respiratory consequences of upper airway dysfunction, changes in the control of breathing during sleep and the social implications of sleep problems. Sleep medicine is a fast developing discipline which interfaces with many of the medical specialties. Sleep Medicine: A Guide to Sleep and its Disorders enables doctors and other health professionals to access recent advances ensuring that their patients receive the optimum treatment for their sleep disorders.
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