One hundred years ago, the fundamental building block of the central nervous system, the neuron, was discovered. This study focuses on the existing mathematical models of neurons and their interactions, the simulation of which has been one of the biggest challenges facing modern science." "More than fifty years ago, W. S. McCulloch and W. Pitts devised their model for the neuron, John von Neumann seemed to sense the possibilities for the development of intelligent systems, and Frank Rosenblatt came up with a functioning network of neurons. Despite these advances, the subject had begun to fade as a major research area until John Hopfield arrived on the scene. Drawing an analogy between neural networks and the Ising spin models of ferromagnetism, Hopfield was able to introduce a "computational energy" that would decline toward stable minima under the operation of the system of neurodynamics devised by Roy Glauber." "Like a switch, a neuron is said to be either "on" or "off." The state of the neuron is determined by the states of the other neurons and the connections between them, and the connections are assumed to be reciprocal - that is, neuron number one influences neuron number two exactly as strongly as neuron number two influences neuron number one. According to the Glauber dynamics, the states of the neurons are updated in a random serial way until an equilibrium is reached. An energy function can be associated with each state, and equilibrium corresponds to a minimum of this energy. It follows from Hopfield's assumption of reciprocity that an equilibrium will always be reached." "D. H. Ackley, G. E. Hinton, and T. J. Sejnowski modified the Hopfield network by introducing the simulated annealing algorithm to search out the deepest minima. This is accomplished by - loosely speaking - shaking the machine. The violence of the shaking is controlled by a parameter called temperature, producing the Boltzmann machine - a name designed to emphasize the connection to the statistical physics of Ising spin models." "The Boltzmann machine reduces to the Hopfield model in the special case where the temperature goes to zero. The resulting network, under the Glauber dynamics, produces a homogeneous, irreducible, aperiodic Markov chain as it wanders through state space. The entire theory of Markov chains becomes applicable to the Boltzmann machine." "With ten chapters, five appendices, a list of references, and an index, this study should serve as an introduction to the field of neural networks and its application, and is suitable for an introductory graduate course or an advanced undergraduate course."--BOOK JACKET.Title Summary field provided by Blackwell North America, Inc. All Rights Reserved
A stirring chronicle of the spiritual life of a nation, Prayer in America shows how the faith of Americans—from the founding fathers to corporate tycoons, from composers to social reformers, from generals to slaves—was an essential ingredient in the formation of American culture, character, commerce, and creed. Prayer in America brings together the country’s hymns, patriotic anthems, arts, and literature as a framework for telling the story of the innermost thoughts of the people who have shaped the United States we know today. Beginning with Native Americans, Prayer in America traces the prayer lives of Quakers and Shakers, Sikhs and Muslims, Catholics and Jews, from their earliest days in the United States through the aftermath of 9/11, and the 2004 presidential election. It probes the approach to prayer by such diverse individuals as Benjamin Franklin, Elvis Presley, Frank Lloyd Wright, J. C. Penney, P. T. Barnum, Jackie Robinson, and Christopher Columbus. It includes every president of the United States as well as America’s clergy, immigrants, industrialists, miners, sports heroes, and scientists. Prayer in America shows that without prayer, the political, cultural, social, and even economic and military history of the United States would be vastly different from what it is today. It engages in a thoughtful, timely examination of the modern debate over public prayer and how the current approach to prayer bears deep roots in the philosophies of the country’s founding fathers, a subject which remains distinct from the debate over church and state.
What I have compiled in this extraordinary treasury are the very private thoughts of American philosophers, farmers, athletes, statesmen, mothers, laborers, scientists, industrialists, and others in their relationship with God. Some are simple, straightforward entreaties; others are elaborate invocations. All of them, however, provide indelible imprints and keys to understanding the inner sanctum of the individuals who made America what it is today. The prayers of these Americans are intimate snapshots of how they dealt with the gamut of human emotions, conditions, and events they experienced. They found comfort, hope, and the ability simply to endure by turning to God in their often unpredictable lives. While the language of these prayers may vary from era to era, the essence remains the same. Americans from all walks of life and faiths have found their existences incomplete without being able to reach out to a higher power. It is through the words of their prayers that they find purpose in a larger context and from a greater perspective. —James P. Moore Jr. Since its inception, America has remained a deeply religious and spiritual nation, fostering a prayer culture that has thrived among its diverse population and its wide-ranging faith traditions. The Treasury of American Prayers brings together hundreds of prayers composed largely by Americans from all walks of life to create an unparalleled and comprehensive collection of “home-grown” expressions of spirituality and religious conviction. These prayers form an inspiring portrait of the country’s rich and profound faith and provide access to the innermost thoughts of such individuals as Benjamin Franklin, Elvis Presley, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Conrad Hilton. They have helped sustain Americans in times of war and recession as well as in periods of change and even prosperity. Jim Moore has compiled an extraordinary anthology in The Treasury of American Prayers, arranged by such topics as patience, thanksgiving, despair, love, and other timeless themes. He provides context, historical perspective, and a personal insight for each prayer. While this collection reflects the great history of the American experience, these prayers also hold great resonance for Americans today.
Industrialization in Africa has relied heavily on state institutions of various kinds and on the inflow of foreign capital, especially foreign aid. With particular reference to technology and on the basis of a wide range of case-studies, this book explains how these features of the African experience have jointly contributed not only to the many cases of failure in the public sector, but also to a number of exceptional cases that can be regarded as success stories.
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