We review the supranuclear control centers and pathways leading to individual cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem. We discuss horizontal and vertical gaze and their abnormalities, and review the cranial nerves which subserve eye movements, III, IV, VI, including their clinical testing. We highlight the sites at which these nerves are clinically affected, which often result in characteristic associated features with neurological localizing value. Differential diagnoses of cranial nerve palsies including Duane and Möbius syndromes are also described. Lastly, we discuss the nature of childhood neuromuscular junction disorders such as myasthenia gravis, as well as disorders of the muscle itself (chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), thyroid orbitopathy).
We review the clinical examination of the optic disc and assessment of the integrity of the visual pathways: assessment of vision in the infant and child, assessment of disc size and configuration, detection of abnormalities such as cupping or disc swelling and their significance, visual field examination in the child, and the various field defects which result from pathology affecting the visual pathway anywhere along its course. Congenital anomalies of the optic disc, their systemic associations and significance are discussed. We also review the presentation of the visually impaired child, the significance of nystagmus in this context, the differential diagnosis and investigation.
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