Is Confucianism a religion? If so, why do most Chinese think it isn't? From ancient Confucian temples, to nineteenth-century archives, to the testimony of people interviewed by the author throughout China over a period of more than a decade, this book traces the birth and growth of the idea of Confucianism as a world religion. The book begins at Oxford, in the late nineteenth century, when Friedrich Max Müller and James Legge classified Confucianism as a world religion in the new discourse of "world religions" and the emerging discipline of comparative religion. Anna Sun shows how that decisive moment continues to influence the understanding of Confucianism in the contemporary world, not only in the West but also in China, where the politics of Confucianism has become important to the present regime in a time of transition. Contested histories of Confucianism are vital signs of social and political change. Sun also examines the revival of Confucianism in contemporary China and the social significance of the ritual practice of Confucian temples. While the Chinese government turns to Confucianism to justify its political agenda, Confucian activists have started a movement to turn Confucianism into a religion. Confucianism as a world religion might have begun as a scholarly construction, but are we witnessing its transformation into a social and political reality? With historical analysis, extensive research, and thoughtful reflection, Confucianism as a World Religion will engage all those interested in religion and global politics at the beginning of the Chinese century.
This dissertation addresses three related issues: What were the historical and social processes through which Confucianism became part of the world religion paradigm? How is Confucianism classified in contemporary China and why? How should we understand Confucianism today as social scientists -- is it a religion, after all? The search for answers has taken me from the Firestone Library at Princeton to some faraway places, from the Department of Western Manuscripts at the Bodleian Library in Oxford, the East India Company Archive in the British Library in London, to various Confucius temples in China, where I conducted interviews and observed ritual practices. In my analysis, I argue for four related theses: First, the legitimation of Confucianism as a world religion was the consequence of how a particular controversy over the religious nature of Confucianism was settled in the late 19th century, and this settlement was the result of boundary work on the part of the key actors James Legge and Friedrich Max Muller, as well as the result of the interplay of larger social, political and institutional forces. Second, in the ongoing debate over whether Confucianism is a religion in contemporary China, although the settlement has not yet been reached, an analysis of the debate shows that, just like in the late 19th century controversy, the determining factors are as much social and political as intellectual. Third, despite the fact that scholars have long held conflicting views over the religious status of Confucianism, the classification of Confucianism as one of the major world religions is still an integral part of the world religions paradigm, and the paradigm is still very much in place today. Fourth, based on insights from recent literature on syncretism in the sociology of religion and the notions of "tool kit" and "repertoire" in the sociology of culture, I propose a new way of studying Confucianism by redefining the classification scheme of Chinese religions, and by refocusing on the actual ritual practices of ordinary people.
Is Confucianism a religion? If so, why do most Chinese think it isn't? From ancient Confucian temples, to nineteenth-century archives, to the testimony of people interviewed by the author throughout China over a period of more than a decade, this book traces the birth and growth of the idea of Confucianism as a world religion. The book begins at Oxford, in the late nineteenth century, when Friedrich Max Müller and James Legge classified Confucianism as a world religion in the new discourse of "world religions" and the emerging discipline of comparative religion. Anna Sun shows how that decisive moment continues to influence the understanding of Confucianism in the contemporary world, not only in the West but also in China, where the politics of Confucianism has become important to the present regime in a time of transition. Contested histories of Confucianism are vital signs of social and political change. Sun also examines the revival of Confucianism in contemporary China and the social significance of the ritual practice of Confucian temples. While the Chinese government turns to Confucianism to justify its political agenda, Confucian activists have started a movement to turn Confucianism into a religion. Confucianism as a world religion might have begun as a scholarly construction, but are we witnessing its transformation into a social and political reality? With historical analysis, extensive research, and thoughtful reflection, Confucianism as a World Religion will engage all those interested in religion and global politics at the beginning of the Chinese century.
Metal-air batteries (MABs) have attracted attention because of their high specific energy, low cost, and safety features. This book discusses science and technology including material selection, synthesis, characterization, and their applications in MABs. It comprehensively describes various composite bifunctional electrocatalysts, corrosion/oxidation of carbon-containing air cathode catalysts, and how improvements can be achieved in the catalytic activities of oxygen reduction reaction and oxygen evolution reaction and their durability/stability. This book also analyzes, compares, and discusses composite bifunctional electrocatalysts in the applications of MABs, matching the fast information of commercial MABs in requirements. Aimed at researchers and industry professionals, this comprehensive work provides readers with an appreciation for what bifunctional composite electrocatalysts are capable of, how this field has grown in the past decades, and how bifunctional composite electrocatalysts can significantly improve the performance of MABs. It also offers suggestions for future research directions to overcome technical challenges and further facilitate research and development in this important area.
The hereditary retinopathy, retinitis pigmentosa (RP), which affects 1 in 3,500 people worldwide, is the most common cause of registered visual handicap among those of the working age in developed countries. RP is a highly variable disorder where patients may develop symptomatic visual loss in early childhood, while others may remain asymptomatic until mid-adulthood. Most cases of RP segregate in autosomal dominant, recessive or X-linked recessive modes, with approximately 41 genes being implicated in disease pathology to date (RetNet). The extensive genetic heterogeneity associated with autosomal dominant RP (adRP) is an undisputed hindrance to the development of genetically based therapeutics.
Surface Treatment in Bonding Technology provides valuable advice on surface treatment methods, modern measuring devices, and the appropriate experimentation techniques that are essential to create strong joints with a reliable service life. The book's focus is on the detailed and up-to-date analysis of surface treatment methods for metallic and polymer substrates. An analysis of factors affecting the surface preparation stage, together with advice on selection, is also provided. Essential theory is combined with experimentation techniques and industry practice to provide a guide that is both practical and academically rigorous. Including a general introduction to bonding, as well as coverage of mechanical, chemical and electrochemical methods, this book is the ideal primer for anyone working with or researching adhesive bonding. Provides detailed descriptions of surface treatments and their mechanisms that will help readers build a deep understanding of these fundamental techniques Includes a thorough survey of recent advances in research in surface treatments of metals and polymers Provides technical advice on experimental testing methods throughout the book
The “happiness agenda” is a worldwide movement that claims that happiness is the highest good, happiness can be measured, and public policy should promote happiness. Against Happiness is a thorough and powerful critique of this program, revealing the flaws of its concept of happiness and advocating a renewed focus on equality and justice. Written by an interdisciplinary team of authors, this book provides both theoretical and empirical analysis of the limitations of the happiness agenda. The authors emphasize that this movement draws on a parochial, Western-centric philosophical basis and demographic sample. They show that happiness defined as subjective satisfaction or a surplus of positive emotions bears little resemblance to the richer and more nuanced concepts of the good life found in many world traditions. Cross-cultural philosophy, comparative theology, and social and cultural psychology all teach that cultures and subcultures vary in how much value they place on life satisfaction or feeling happy. Furthermore, the ideas promoted by the happiness agenda can compete with rights, justice, sustainability, and equality—and even conceal racial and gender injustice. Against Happiness argues that a better way forward requires integration of cross-cultural philosophical, ethical, and political thought with critical social science. Ultimately, the authors contend, happiness should be a secondary goal—worth pursuing only if it is contingent on the demands of justice.
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