Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a method of noninvasive brain stimulation that directly affects the cerebral cortex but not deep structures. TMS has been used extensively in patients with primary dystonia to test the excitability of connections within and among motor areas of the cortex, and has provided useful information on pathophysiology; however, interindividual variability in the responses has resulted in difficulties in translating this method into a clinically applicable diagnostic use. In addition, TMS studies have disclosed that dystonia is a disorder linked to a disruption of synaptic “scaling,” with an excess of synaptic plasticity that is in keeping with findings obtained in animal models of dystonia. This alteration is a unique feature of organic dystonia and may be helpful in differentiating patients with psychogenic dystonia. Finally, TMS can potentially be used as a therapeutic tool to treat some forms of dystonia, such as focal hand dystonia, where pharmacological options or injections of botulinum toxin are often ineffective.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a method of noninvasive brain stimulation that directly affects the cerebral cortex but not deep structures. TMS has been used extensively in patients with primary dystonia to test the excitability of connections within and among motor areas of the cortex, and has provided useful information on pathophysiology; however, interindividual variability in the responses has resulted in difficulties in translating this method into a clinically applicable diagnostic use. In addition, TMS studies have disclosed that dystonia is a disorder linked to a disruption of synaptic “scaling,” with an excess of synaptic plasticity that is in keeping with findings obtained in animal models of dystonia. This alteration is a unique feature of organic dystonia and may be helpful in differentiating patients with psychogenic dystonia. Finally, TMS can potentially be used as a therapeutic tool to treat some forms of dystonia, such as focal hand dystonia, where pharmacological options or injections of botulinum toxin are often ineffective.
The book examines the possibility of integrating different membrane unit operations (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and gas separation) in the same industrial cycle or in combination with conventional separation systems. It gives careful analysis of the technical aspects, and the possible fields of industrial development. The book reviews many original solutions in water desalination, agro-food productions and wastewater treatments, highlighting the advantages achievable in terms of product quality, compactness, rationalization and optimization of productive cycles, reduction of environmental impact and energy saving. Also included are examples of membrane reactors and their integration with a fuel cell; polymeric membranes in the integrated gasification combined cycle power plants; integrating a membrane reformer into a solar system; and potential application of membrane integrated systems in the fusion reactor fuel cycle. With detailed analysis and broad coverage, the book is divided into two sections: Bio-applications and Inorganic Applications.
Examines the latest applications of photochemistry to generate important intermediates Presenting the latest breakthroughs in the field of organic photochemistry, this book offers tested and proven photochemical approaches to synthesis, creating promising new possibilities and applications for photochemical reactions. It focuses on photoreactions involving an intermediate where mechanistic aspects control the course of the reaction and its synthetic value. Readers will discover new insights into the mechanisms and nature of photo-produced reactive intermediates for organic synthesis as well as the methods to generate them. Moreover, by focusing on highly efficient techniques for producing such species, the authors enable researchers to design and perform photoreactions within the framework of green, sustainable chemistry. Photochemically-Generated Intermediates in Synthesis begins with a discussion of the principles and practice of photo-generated intermediates. Next, the book explores: Photogeneration of carbon-centered radicals Photogeneration of heteroatom-centered radicals Photogeneration of biradicals and radical pairs Photochemical generation of radical ions Photogeneration of carbocations and carbanions Photogeneration of carbenes and nitrenes The book's final chapter is dedicated to the photochemical manipulation of intermediates. Each chapter includes key kinetic data for typical intermediates as well as detailed case examples, giving readers all the tools needed to perform their own photochemical reactions. Comparisons to non-photochemical methods are offered whenever possible. Photochemically-Generated Intermediates in Synthesis sets the stage for greater collaboration among photochemists and synthetic organic chemists, enabling these two research communities to fully leverage photochemistry in order to generate key intermediates needed for a broad range of synthetic reactions in organic chemistry.
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