Before Palm Pilots and iPods, PCs and laptops, the term "computer" referred to the people who did scientific calculations by hand. These workers were neither calculating geniuses nor idiot savants but knowledgeable people who, in other circumstances, might have become scientists in their own right. When Computers Were Human represents the first in-depth account of this little-known, 200-year epoch in the history of science and technology. Beginning with the story of his own grandmother, who was trained as a human computer, David Alan Grier provides a poignant introduction to the wider world of women and men who did the hard computational labor of science. His grandmother's casual remark, "I wish I'd used my calculus," hinted at a career deferred and an education forgotten, a secret life unappreciated; like many highly educated women of her generation, she studied to become a human computer because nothing else would offer her a place in the scientific world. The book begins with the return of Halley's comet in 1758 and the effort of three French astronomers to compute its orbit. It ends four cycles later, with a UNIVAC electronic computer projecting the 1986 orbit. In between, Grier tells us about the surveyors of the French Revolution, describes the calculating machines of Charles Babbage, and guides the reader through the Great Depression to marvel at the giant computing room of the Works Progress Administration. When Computers Were Human is the sad but lyrical story of workers who gladly did the hard labor of research calculation in the hope that they might be part of the scientific community. In the end, they were rewarded by a new electronic machine that took the place and the name of those who were, once, the computers.
Tolley's Tax Cases 2007 is your complete guide to Court and Special Commissioners' decisions relevant to current direct tax legislation. Covering cases from 1875 to 1 January 2007, Tolley's Tax Cases contains concise summaries of over 2,800 tax cases providing all the essential information you need when dealing with the Inland Revenue.
Viewing and Representing is a two-book series written for the 7-10 New South Wales English Syllabus. Viewing and Representing in Context 1 and 2 explore in detail the modes of viewing and representing, as well as their relationship to the other language modes (talking, listening, reading and writing). The series helps students to question and evaluate a range of texts and to compose texts of their own. Students have the opportunity to engage with film, photographs, picture books, media and multimedia texts, in addition to traditional literature. They are encouraged to examine the cultural, social, personal and historical contexts of language usage; to make connections between texts; and to consider how visual texts - as well as written and oral texts - encourage us to adopt particular points of view.
Examines the legislation, case law and practice concerning the charge to tax under Schedule D, Cases I and II on trades and professions carried on by individuals, partnerships and enterprises. It includes in-depth coverage, with mutiple worked examples, of the new current year basis of assessment and transitional provisions. Coverage of expenditure is enhancd, and other topics covered in this edition include: assessable income; loss reliefs; capital allowances; partnerships; and class 2 and 4 National Insurance contributions.
Tolley's VAT Cases 2012 is a single-volume publication which contains concise summaries of more than 4,000 essential court and VAT Tribunal decisions, from 1973 to 1 January 2012, relevant to current legislation. Cases are classified into chapters which are arranged alphabetically, making navigation quick and simple, and allowing case summaries from any year to be rapidly located.The new edition contains a revised introductory survey discussing leading decisions reached in 2011, an expanded chapter on input tax with summaries of the 2011 decisions concerning circular transactions and ‘carousel fraud’ and an updated chapter on education, which now includes a section on examination services.
Tolley's Tax Cases is the only book of its kind to summarise all key court, Special Commissioners' and First-tier Tribunal decisions relevant to current direct tax legislation. Concise summaries of over 2,800 tax cases span from 1875 to the present day. This offers an important historical context to current tax legislation. The new edition is alphabetically arranged with a comprehensive index to ensure you can locate accurate answers immediately.
Tolley's Tax Cases 2005 is your complete guide to Court and Special Commissioners' decisions relevant to current direct tax legislation. Covering cases from 1875 to 1 January 2005, Tolley's Tax Cases contains concise summaries of over 2,800 tax cases providing all the essential information you need when dealing with the Inland Revenue. This authoritative text is the only book of its kind to contain summaries of all important court decisions relevant to direct tax legislation. With chapters arranged in alphabetical order for easy referencing and a comprehensive index, you can find all the answers you require quickly and easily.
This work contains brief, concise reports of more than 2500 essential court and special commissioners' decisions relevant to UK tax legislation from 1875 to 1 January 2001, including selected European tax cases. It provides analytical commentary on key decisions from 2000. Cases are arranged in subject areas and subjects are arranged alphabetically. The tables included list cases both alphabetically, under the names of both parties, and in order of the relevant legislation.
Arranged in alphabetical subject order, from Accounting Periods to Zero-Rating, it brings together in-depth coverage of the UK and EC legislation, Customs and Excise material and relevant case law and tribunal decisions relevant to each topic, so the complete picture on any particular point can be easily found. Due to the ever changing nature of VAT and your need to have access to the most up-to-date information. Tolley's VAT annual is published in two complete volumes in April (following the Budget) and September (following the Finance Act) for one price (the second edition is also available separately).
Arranged in alphabetical subject order, from Accounting Periods to Zero-Rating, this second edition brings together coverage of the UK and EC legislation, Customs material and case law and tribunal decisions on each topic. Due to the ever-changing nature of VAT, it includes the changes in the Finance Act.
Arranged in alphabetical subject order, from Accounting Periods to Zero-Rating, Tolley's Value Added Tax brings together in-depth coverage of the UK and EC legislation, Customs material and relevant case law and tribunal decisions relevant to each topic, so the complete picture on any particular point can be easily found.Due to the ever-changing nature of VAT and your need to have access to the most up-to-date information, Tolley's VAT annual is published in two complete volumes in April (following the Budget) and September (following the Finance Act) for one price (the second edition is also available separately).
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